


^ -7 ^ 





















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Fig. i. — Cotton x 130. 




Fig. 2..— Manilla (J) and Hemp (B) x 130. 



B 



\_Frontispiece. 



Practical Paper-making 

a MANUAL 

FOR PAPER-MAKERS AND OWNERS AND 

MANAGERS OF PAPER MILLS 

• 
TO WHICH ARE APPENDED 

USEFUL TABLES, CALCULATIONS, DATA, ETC. 



BY 

GEORGE CLAPPERTON 



PAPER-MAKER 



SSJtth JUttsimtions gkprrrtuxab from JEww-Ptotcrgtaphsi 



SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED 




NEW YORK 
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 

23 MURRAY AND 27 WARREN STREETS 

London : CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND SON 

1907 



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PREFACE. 



THE Author is well aware that the subject of 
Practical Paper-making is one to which a 
much larger and fuller work than the present might 
have been devoted. He trusts, however, that this 
little volume, slight as is the treatment of most por- 
tions of the subject, will in some measure supply a 
need which he has himself felt for several years, 
and more especially during the first years of his 
apprenticeship — namely, the need of a work on Paper- 
making which, while not neglecting those teachings 
of theoretical and practical chemistry, the under- 
standing of which is necessary for the successful 
and economic production of paper, should at the 
same time give due consideration to the practical 
Working of the Paper Mill. 

He is aware, also, that to carry out this plan, even 
on the unambitious scale of the present work, there 



m 



iv PREFACE. 

is required of an author intimate knowledge of the 
actual working of the mill, such as can only be 
obtained by years of practical work in the various 
departments. His own experience, he is able to say, 
having been such as should qualify him for the task 
he has here undertaken, he ventures to hope that 
many Paper-makers and Millowners will find in these 
pages knowledge and information of no little value, 
which has not hitherto been accessible in a similar 
form. To what extent the work answers his 
desires, his readers will be best able to judge. 

Special attention may be invited to the illustrations 
of the Microscopical Examination of Paper and 
Paper-making Materials, which have been repro- 
duced from micro-photographs. 

In the Appendix will be found some useful Tables, 
Data, etc., compiled from various sources. 

Blackburn, Penicuik. 
March 1894. 

NOTE TO SECOND EDITION. 

For the present edition, the work has been carefully 
revised and some additions made (enlarging the volume 
by about 18 or 20 pages), so as to bring the information 
fully up to date. 

Sandford-on-Thames, near Oxford. 
November 1906. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF 
VARIOUS FIBRES. 

PAi 

Cellulose : its Composition and Chemical Properties — Effect of 
Bleach — Of Atmosphere — Oxycellulose — Action of Solvents 
— Detection — Relation to Plants — Incrusting Substances — 
Cotton — Compound Celluloses— Pectocellulose — Lignocellu- 
lose — Adipocellulose — Isolation — Rags and Thread — " Bast " 
Fibres, Fibro- Vascular Bundles — Physical Features of Cotton, 
Linen, Hemp, Jute, Manilla, Esparto, Straw, Wood 



CHAPTER II. 

CUTTING AND BOILING OF RAGS.— JUTE BOILING 
AND BLEACHING. 

Grading — Cutting Machine — Rationale of Boiling — Caustic Soda 

— Lime — Jute Boiling and Bleaching 8 

CHAPTER III. 

WET PICKING— WASHING, BREAKING, AND BLEACH- 
ING.— ELECTROLYTIC BLEACHING.— ANTICHLOR. 

Wet Picking — Washing Drum — Management of Breaker, Plates, 
and Rolls — Weak Liquor — Bleaching Powder — Rationale of 
Bleaching — Effect of Steam, Sulphuric Acid, Alum, Acetic 
V 



CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Acid — Jute, Reaction with Chlorine — Amount of Bleach 
for Various Qualities — Preparation of Bleaching Liquor — 
Apparatus — Lime Mud — Electrolytic Bleaching — Ozone 
Bleach — Hermete's Method — Bleaching and Draining Chests 
— Antichlor — Hyposulphite of Soda — Sulphite of Soda — 
Dangers from Excess — Test for Bleach 17 



CHAPTER IV. 

CELLULOSE FROM WOOD.— MECHANICAL WOOD PULP. 

Composition of Wood — Classification of Processes — Mechanical 
Treatment — Alkali ■ Processes — Watt and Burgess's — Effect 
of Caustic Solutions — Sulphite Processes — Ekman's — 
Partington's— Mitscherlich's — Sulphate Processes, Dahl's — 
Method Employed in Scotch Mill — Mechanical Wood-Pre- 
paration — Properties 31 



CHAPTER V. 

ESPARTO AND STRAW. 

Percentage Composition — Nature and Combination of Cellulose — 
Dusting — Sorting — Effect of Caustic Solution, of Pressure, 
Boiling — Amount of Caustic Required — Concentration ot 
Boiling Solution — Washing Under Pressure — Steepers — 
Potchers — Drum Washer — Loss in Washing — Bleaching 
Effect of Steam — Duration — Straw, Pressure and Strength 
of Boiling Solutions— Nature of Finished Pulp — Loss in 
Washing — Yield of Cellulose — Effect on Paper . - .44 



CHAPTER VI. 

BEATING. 

Stuff for Bank, Loan, Chromo, and Litho Papers — Condition and 
Management of Plates and Rolls — Tempering the Stuff for 
Various Qualities — Marshall's Perfecting Engine — Interme- 
diate Engines — Spanish Grass — Wood — Soft-sized Papers — 
Blottings — Construction of Beater. Forbes' Beater — Rusting 52 



CONTENTS. VU 

CHAPTER VII. 
LOADING.— STARCH.— COLOURING MA TTER. 

PAGE 

Legitimate and Necessary Use — Selection of a Loading — China 
Clay, Preparation for the Engine — Effect on Paper — Loading 
Chromo and Plate Papers — " Pearl Hardening," Application 
— Properties — Barium Sulphate — Properties — Retention — 
Effect on Paper — Barium Chloride — Agalite, Nature and 
Properties — Retention — Starch, Properties — Application — 
Colour, Ultramarine — Carnation — Standard Samples — Alum 
Resisting Power — Fading in Chests and Engines — Amounts 
Necessary to Counteract Fading — Smalts — Iron — Aniline 
Colours, Greens '67 



CHAPTER VIII. 

RESIN SIZE AND SIZING. 

Theories of Sizing — Proportions of Resin and Soda — Recipe for 
Neutral Sodium Resinate — Preparation — Test for Complete 
Saponification — Dilution for the Engine — White Size — 
Preparation — Effect of Beating on Sizing— Alum — Sulphates 
of Alumina — Solubility — Percentage of Alumina — Effect of 
Hard Water on Size — Neutralising Hardness in Water — 
Amount of Alum Consumed by Hard Water — Effect of 
Machine Drying Cylinders on Sizing — Caseine Sizing . , 80 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE FOURDRINIER MACHINE AND ITS MANAGEMENT. 

Unequal Weight — Chests — Agitators — Knots — Stuff Pump — 
Sandtrap — Strainers — Working of Revolving Strainers — 
Strainer Plates — Knots — Breast-box — Deckles — Making 
Good Edges — Knees — Leathers — Apron — Slices — Wove — 
Laid — Speed — Dandy "Lifting" — Free and Long Stuff — 



vm CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Soft and Fine Stuff — Sticking — Length of Wire — Pitch of 
Frame — Shake — Breast-roll — Pump Boxes — Slack Edges — 
Froth — "Bells" — Froth-killers — Cracks and Breaks — Named 
Dandies — Unequal Shrinkage — Brown's Patent Laid Dandy 
— " Blowing " — Wet and Dry Felts — " Cockling " — Altering 
Draws — Unsteady Wires — Making Webs — Breaking at 
Calenders — Changing Strainers — Putting on and Starting 
Wire — A Raised Seam — Putting on Coucher Jacket — 
Starting Calenders • Q3 



CHAPTER X. 

ANIMAL SIZING.— DRYING. 

Extraction of Gelatine — Alum — Soap — Chests — Sizing Tub — 
Effect of Beating — " Peeling " — Envelope Papers — Use of 
Steam — Drying — Steam Heat — Fans — "Cockling" — "Spang- 
ling " — Speed of Drier — Loft Drying ..... 137 



CHAPTER XI. 

GLAZING AND BURNISHING. 

Smoothing Rolls — Long versus Fine Stuff — Damper — Alkaline 
Soap — Super-Calender — Effect of Heat — Pressure — Wood and 
Straw Papers — Coloured Papers — Burnishing — Plate Glazing 146 



CHAPTER XII. 

CUTTING.— FINISHING. 

Revolving Angle and Square Cutter — Loading — Starting — 
Overloading — Circulars — Cross-cutting Knives — Feeding- 
Rolls — Tube-Rolls — Burnished Papers — Creasing — Tissue 
Papers — Squaring the Sheets — Double Draw — English Cutter 
— Starting New Knife — Circulars — Feeding-Rolls — " Dancer" 
— Lined Papers 152 



CONTENTS. lx 

CHAPTER XIII. 
MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION OF PAPER. 

PAGE 

Use of Iodine — Apparatus — Standard Specimens — Objectives — 
Physical Characteristics — Cotton — Linen — Hemp — Manilla — 
Jute — Wood —Esparto — Straw — Mechanical Wood — Quan- 
titative Analysis — Mounting Standard Specimens . . . 163 

- 

CHAPTER XIV. 

TESTS FOR INGREDIENTS OF PAPER. 

Animal Size — Alum — Starch — Chlorides — Engine Size — Mineral 

Substances *73 

CHAPTER XV. 

RECOVERY OF SODA. 

Incineration — Porion Roaster — Evaporator — Pan — Burning Off 
— Lixiviation — Tanks — Method of Working — Causticising — 
Chemical Action- — Proportions of Soda and Lime — Plant — 
Method of Working — Test — Air. Blast— Sodium Sulphide — 
Aluminate and Silicate — Effect of Sodium Bi-carbonate — 
Ferric Oxide Causticising Process — " Multiple Effects " 
Rationale — Yaryan System — Chapman and Fawcett's Eva- 
porator — Gaunt Evaporator — Scott Evaporator — Warren 
Rotary Furnace 178 

CHAPTER XVI. 

TESTING OF CHEMICALS.— TESTING WATER FOR 
IMPURITIES. 

Caustic and Recovered Soda — Normal Sulphuric Acid — Actual 
Test— Examples — Grades of Commercial Caustic Soda — 
Electrolytic Manufacture — Alum — Antichlor — Preparation ot 
Iodine Solution — Actual Test — Bleaching Powder — Arsenious 
Acid Solution — Actual Test — Weak Liquors — Lime Mud — 
Tables of Percentage of Caustic Soda and Alum — Testing 
Water 195 



X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

APPENDIX. 

PAGE 

Equivalent Weights and Sizes of Writing Papers . . . 209 

Equivalent Weights and Sizes of Printing Papers . „ .210 

Sizes of Book and Drawing Papers . . . . . .210 

Sizes of Cartridge Papers . . . . . . . .211 

Sizes of Lined Papers . . . . . . . . .211 

Various Calculations relating to Weight of Reams and Webs . 211 
Data for Ascertaining the Number of Gallons of Caustic Liquor 
required to give the Number of Pounds of Na,0 necessary 
for a Boiling .......... 212 

Table showing the Strength of Bleaching Powder Solutions . 213 

Weights and Measures of the Metric System . . . .214 

French and English Thermometer Scales . . . , .215 
Useful Data „ 215 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PAPER-MAKING MATERIALS UNDER THE MICROSCOPE. 

Plate I. Cotton, Manilla, and Hemp . . . Frontispiece. 

„ II. Linen and Flax Facing page 6 

„ III. Chemical Wood and Mechanical Wood . ,, 31 

,, IV. Esparto and Straw » 44 

„ V. Chemical Wood and Esparto. — Cotton, 

Linen, Wood, and Esparto . . . „ 163 
„ VI. Linen, Cotton, and Esparto. — Manilla 

and Cotton „ 166 

„ VII. Cotton and Pearl Hardening. — China 

Clay ,,171 

„ VIII. Pearl Hardening. — Terra Alba . . „ 172 

Note. — Plates I. to V. represent the various fibres in the state of 
half-stuff, while the illustrations on Plates VI. to VIII. are from the 
finished papers. 



Practical Paper-making. 



ERRATA 

Pa ge 77, in line 12, for "like 



precipitate," read "lake precipitate 
26 " " Am ™» „ « Auramine .„ 



product, a thorough grasp of these characteristics is 
indispensable to all who aim at the production of the 
best possible results with the minimum of cost. 

The percentage of cellulose — or, to use a term more 
readily understood by paper-makers, the amount of 
available paper-making material — varies with the plants 
from which it is obtained, and the treatment to which 
it is subjected in the process of freeing it from its 
combination with the non-cellulose or non-available 
material with which it is so intimately bound up. 

The chemical formula for cellulose is C 6 H 10 O 5 , which 
means that 6 equivalents of carbon, 10 of hydrogen, 

1 



2 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

and 5 of oxygen are united together to form the sub- 
stance known by that name. These proportions are 
constant, though the physical characteristics may differ 
very widely, and it is of the first importance that great 
care be taken, in the different processes through which 
the raw material must pass, that none of the chemicals 
employed have the effect of changing its nature by 
adding to or taking from its constituents, thus giving 
rise to serious complications. 

Cellulose which has been in contact with bleaching 
solution for a lengthened period, or even exposed to 
the action of air and light for any length of time, will 
be found to have lost much of its original strength and 
firmness, and in addition to have acquired properties 
that were wanting in its pure state. This change is 
due to the action of the atmospheric oxygen in entering 
into combination with the cellulose molecule to form 
what is technically known as the oxy-cellulose obtained 
by the action of a weak oxidising agent on cellulose. 

The oxy-cellulose has the property of extracting 
basic colouring matters from their solutions and being 
permanently dyed by them, and further possesses an 
extraordinary affinity for vanadium compounds, uniting 
with them from solutions containing infinitesimal pro- 
portions. 

Pure cellulose is insoluble in all simple solvents. 
A solution of cupric hydrate in ammonia alone acts 
on it, first causing it to swell up and finally dissolving 
it. The reaction with a solution of iodine in potassium 



ISOLATION OF CELLULOSE. 3 

iodide is mostly used for its detection ; but in order 
to render it effective it is necessary to employ a 
dehydrating agent, such as sulphuric acid, when 
the characteristic deep blue or violet colour will be 
produced. 

Before the cellulose can be made available for the 
manufacture of paper, it must first be freed from its 
combination with the non-cellulose constituents with 
which it is united to form the plant structure. 
•) Plants may be designated as an aggregation of fibres 
and cells bound together by gummy, resinous, and 
waxy substances, which have a function similar to 
that performed by lime in cementing and rendering 
durable the stones or bricks of which a house is built ; 
and as the stones, in order to be used in the building 
of another house, would first have to be freed from the 
lime with which they were bound together in the pre- 
vious structure, similarly the fibres and cells must be 
freed from all substances which, though indispensable 
to their existence in the plant life, would tend to impair 
their value as paper-making material. 

"Cotton differs from the other plants in this, that by 
the natural process of ripening the fibres are so freed 
as to yield a pure cellulose, which is available without 
the preliminary treatment which the compound cellu- 
loses must undergo. These compound celluloses are 
classed under the following heads : — 

(1) Pecto- celluloses, so named because they yield 
pectic acid on the breaking up of their combination. 



4 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

The flax plant may be taken as typical of the celluloses 
comprising this group. 

(2) Ligno-celluloses, which owe the designation to 
their yielding non-cellulose or lignine as the result of 
their disintegration. Jute is the typical cellulose of 
this group, in which are included all the different forms 
of woody tissue. 

(3) The third group exist in such a small proportion 
in paper-making materials, that, as compared with the 
preceding compound celluloses, they are of little im- 
portance. They are known by the name adipo-celluloses, 
and are so termed because on reduction they yield acids 
analogous to those obtained by the reduction of fats 
and cork tissue. This group embraces the cuticular 
tissue of such plants as straw, esparto, and cotton. 

The problem, then, which presents itself to the prac- 
tical paper-maker for solution is not simply to become 
acquainted with the physical features of the fibres he 
desires to use for the production of his paper, but to 
arrive at the most economical method by which he can 
best secure the liberation of such fibres in the form 
most suited to his particular purpose, while preserving 
as far as possible the original strength. 

'Such materials as rags and thread, which have 
already been subjected to retting, boiling, and bleach- 
ing by the textile manufacturer, require no very drastic 
treatment to render them suitable to the needs of the 
paper-maker, as they are already in a more or less pure 
state before coming to his hands. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANT STRUCTURES. $ 

It is for this reason, coupled with the physical cha- 
racteristics of their fibres, that they are so much valued 
by him. It will be readily understood that it is with 
such materials as esparto, straw, and wood that the 
chief difficulties in the way of extracting the available 
cellulose exist. 

In addition to the fact that esparto and straw have 
been subjected to no previous disintegration, there is 
another reason which renders them less valuable as a 
paper-making material. In the process of the building 
up of their plant structure the fibro-vascular bundles, 
from which the available fibres are obtained, are scat- 
tered irregularly throughout the main mass, and are 
more closely connected with the non-cellulose con- 
stituents than are the " bast " fibres ot flax, hemp, 
and jute, the fibre bundles or " filaments " of which 
form a separate and cohesive tissue, and are thus 
more easily freed from the surrounding non-available 
material. 

Before taking up the different processes through 
which the materials are passed, in order to render 
them fit for the production of paper, a glance at the 
physical features of the various fibres will be of 
material assistance in enabling the paper-maker to 
obtain a knowledge of the conditions best suited to 
their successful treatment. 

The ultimate fibres of the cotton plant consist, as 
before stated, of pure cellulose, and on examination 
under the microscope will appear as long, flattened 



6 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

tubes always more or less twisted upon themselves. 
The side walls are rough and granulated, which is most 
easily seen when dry. They are strong and flexible, 
and suited for the production of the finest qualities 
of paper, though from the spongy nature of the fibre 
the finished sheet is less hard than that made from 
linen. When the tubular form of the fibres is' borne 
in mind, it will be at once understood why the colouring 
matter is so difficult to remove from coloured cotton 
rags. (See Plate L, Frontispiece, fig. I.) 

Linen, the fibre of the flax plant, is, like cotton, 
tubular, but the side walls are much thicker, the 
central canal is smaller, and, consequently, the fibre is 
harder and less spongy. (See Plate II., figs. 3 and 4.) 

Papers made from linen rags are hard, strong, and 
firm to handle. The fibres obtained from ropes and 
bags are mostly hemp, and are somewhat like linen, 
but much more coarse and harsh ; as they are seldom 
completely freed from the incrusting matters they 
require to be boiled with a larger percentage of caustic. 

Jute fibres are strong but very difficult to bleach 
white, and, indeed, if subjected to such treatment as 
will dissolve all the extraneous matter, and reduce to 
ultimate fibres, their original strength is much impaired. 

Manilla hemp yields strong fibres, easily detached, 
but, like jute, somewhat difficult to bleach white. (See 
Plate I., Frontispiece, fig. 2.) 

The ultimate fibres of esparto are short, smooth, 
and tubular, but in some places the central canal is 



Plate II. 




Fig. 3. — Linen x 130. 



X 




\ V 



Fig. 4. — Flax x 130. 



[ To face fiage 6. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF FIBRES. 7 

completely hidden by the thickening of the side walls. 
(See Plate IV., fig. 7.) 

Straw fibres are very similar in appearance to esparto, 
but they are shorter and more highly polished, thus 
tending to make their felting power much less, and 
rendering paper made from them very brittle. (See 
Plate JV., fig. 8.) 

Wood fibres vary with the different species from 
which they are obtained and the methods used to 
isolate them. Pine wood is capable of yielding long, 
soft, transparent, flexible fibres, well suited to the pro- 
duction of strong well-felted papers. Ash and similar 
trees yield short, hard fibres, possessed of no great 
felting properties. (See Plate III., fig. 5.) 



CHAPTER II. 

CUTTING AND BOILING OF RAGS— JUTE 
BOILING AND BLEACHING. 

Grading of Rags. — As the quality of the finished paper 
is dependent on the successful carrying out of the 
different processes through which the stock must pass, 
it is indispensable to the production of a uniform and 
satisfactory result that the greatest care be taken in 
each department to ensure the intelligent application 
of the principles on which each process depends. 

Nowhere would a neglect of the requirement of each 
particular class be more disastrous than in the rag 
room, which may not inaptly be termed the birthplace 
of the varied qualities of beautiful papers which are 
met with in the market. 

Carelessness in the regulations of the standard of 
each particular grade of rags cannot fail to lead to 
mischievous results, as in such circumstances the stock 
may at one time be above the usual quality intended 
for the paper made, and, at another, much inferior; 
and yet with such manifest defects the paper produced 



RAG-GRADING AND CUTTING. 9 

is expected "to be equal to last making in every 
respect." 

The only remedy for such a state of matters, which 
is not an uncommon one, is that the official in charge 
of the department should insist that the cutters and 
sorters give the necessary attention to the strength 
and cleanliness recognised as the standard of each 
grade. If this be done consistently and intelligently, 
it will soon make itself known in the smoothness with 
which the subsequent processes will go forward, and 
in uniformity in the purity, strength, and shade of the 
paper made which will far more than repay the extra 
time and care involved. 

Rag-cutting. — Though the rag-cutting machine has 
been much improved of late years, it cannot be said 
to have superseded cutting by hand, especially for the 
better qualities of paper. 

As will be readily understood, the rags in being cut 
by the machine come far less under the supervision of 
the women whose duty it is to grade the different 
qualities used in the mill ; and this, together with the 
fact that in the tearing and cutting on the machine 
much of the best of the fibres is damaged, presents a 
serious drawback to its adoption. 

In cutting strong, coarse material, such as canvas and 
bagging, these defects do not exist to the same extent, 
and, though they did, would be of less importance ; 
consequently it is more suited to that class of stock. 



IO PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

When the rags are run straight from the cutter into 
the dusting-machine, as is often the case, the carrying 
felt should be long enough to admit of standing room 
for sorters on either side, so that any extraneous 
material, such as wool, silk, etc., which may have 
escaped detection when feeding in the rags, may be 
removed, and thus prevented from finding its way into 
the boilers and, it may be, into the finished paper. 

Rag Boiling. — The object in subjecting rags, or other 
paper-making material, to the process of boiling is 
that the reducing action of the water, aided by the 
temperature and pressure employed, may break up 
the combination of the cellulose with non-available 
substances. 

Caustic soda is the chemical usually employed to 
render this action more thorough, and to ensure the 
complete removal of all the incrusting substances which 
by their presence tend to render the subsequent bleach- 
ing process much less effective, and to otherwise impair 
the value of the material. 

Rags, which have already been subjected to such a 
process before coming into the hands of the paper- 
maker, require to be treated with a much smaller 
amount of caustic compared with such raw materials 
as esparto and straw. In the case of rags, the func- 
tion of the soda is to remove the size, which is often 
applied to the fabric, together with any dirt which may 
have become attached to the interstices of the material 



RAG-BOILING. II 

in its journey from the textile factory to the rag store, 
and also to destroy, as far as possible, any colouring 
matter and render it more susceptible to the action of 
the bleaching solution. Caustic soda has, in addition, 
the effect of softening the fibres, thus rendering them 
more flexible. 

As*the feel and look of a paper depend quite as 
much on the elasticity and complete freedom from all 
incrusting matters of the original fibres, as upon the 
treatment they receive in the subsequent operations of 
breaking and beating, it becomes at once apparent 
that what at first sight seems a very simple matter — 
namely, the determination of the amount of caustic 
soda most suitable for each material — is in reality a 
somewhat difficult problem, and one which requires 
much greater consideration than is usually given 
to it. 

The physical nature and condition of some rags may 
be such %s to render them quite inert, and of little 
felting power, should they be boiled with the amount 
of caustic necessary to the production of a good 
colour when bleached. The wisdom of continuing 
to use such materials, even though obtained at a 
comparatively low price, is, to say the least, very 
questionable. 

Some rags, again, which from the standard of 
cleanliness may not require a large proportion of soda, 
will often be found to be greatly improved by using 
a little extra per hundredweight, especially when the 



12 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

fibres are harsh. The softening which is thus ob- 
tained will make itself apparent in producing a closer 
and more evenly felted sheet. 

With regard to the economy of using low quality 
rags for papers in which a good colour is indispens- 
able, it has been shown, as the result of very exhaustive 
experiments carried out by Messrs. Wiirster and Zugler, 
that bleached half-stuff from cheap rags is in the end 
much more costly than that obtained from the better 
qualities, notwithstanding the great difference in the 
price. As much as 18 per cent, of loss was found in 
the boiling and washing of such materials. 

Some paper-makers prefer to boil their stock with 
lime, in place of caustic soda, and this is especially 
the case in America. For the better qualities of paper, 
however, its use is attended with very serious draw- 
backs. A larger proportion of lime than is actually 
necessary to reduce the stock must always be used, 
and as this excess must be properly washed *fcut of the 
rags before bleaching, both time and water are thus 
consumed. 

Gritty matters, such as sand and coal-dust, are in- 
variably present, even in the best qualities of lime, 
and these are apt to become fixed in the fibres in such 
a way as to render their complete removal a matter of 
some difficulty. 

Lime, as is well known, is but sparingly soluble in 
cold water, and still less so when the water is heated. 
One part of lime requires seven hundred parts of cold 



RAG-BOILING. 13 

water to dissolve it, and fifteen hundred parts when 
the temperature is raised to boiling point. 

During the boiling process, however, a much larger 
quantity is dissolved than would appear possible at 
first sight. As the dissolved lime enters into combi- 
nation with the non-cellulose portion of the stock, the 
water becomes capable of dissolving a further quantity, 
and so the dissolving action is repeated until all the 
fatty and resinous matters have entered into combi- 
nation with the lime. 

In preparing coarse, dirty stock, such as jute and 
the lower grades of flax, in the subsequent application 
of which a high degree of cleanliness is not of the first 
importance, lime may be used with advantage, both on 
account of its cheapness and its reducing qualities. 

In selecting a lime to boil with, it should be borne 
in mind that grades showing the same percentage of 
actual lime do not always produce a uniform result in 
treating the stock. Lime which is light to handle, 
of a uniformly white colour, and which slacks easily, 
seems to possess greater reducing power than a dull- 
coloured, heavy lime, as less of it is required for 
boiling, and the pulp produced has a softer feel. 

Caustic lime when exposed to the atmosphere quickly 
absorbs carbonic acid, and the carbonate of lime thus 
formed, in addition to possessing no boiling power, 
is very liable to cause serious complications in the sub- 
sequent operations by adhering to the fibres even after 
much washing, and is frequently the source of the spots 



14 PRACTICAL PAPER MAKING. 

which at times appear so unaccountably on the machine 
wire. 

Stationary boilers are very suitable for the finer 
grades of cotton and linen rags, but for coarse, dirty 
stock the rotary action of the revolving boiler is of 
advantage, as the shaking thus given to the stock has 
the effect of loosening the dirt. For this reason it is 
usually employed for such materials. It is an addi- 
tional advantage if the boiler can be fitted with a system 
of pulleys, which will enable the revolving action to 
be quickened during the washing which follows the 
running off of the spent liquor. 

Jute Boiling and Bleaching. — Jute is a material which, 
on account of its strength and cheapness, w T ould receive 
much more extensive application in the manufacture 
of paper were it not for the almost insurmountable 
difficulties which lie in the way of producing from it, 
at a reasonable cost, a pulp of sufficient whiteness 
to be used in the making of fine papers. 

The chief difficulty in bleaching lies in the fact that, 
unless the boiling process has been conducted so as 
to ensure that all the incrusting matters have been 
dissolved, the amount of chlorine consumed before these 
incrusting substances can be effectively bleached 
more than counterbalances the low price of the raw 
material. Apart from the cost of bleaching, the use 
of such a large amount of chlorine tends to impair the 
strength of the fibres. 



JUTE BOILING AND BLEACHING. 15 

The methods of boiling and bleaching jute vary with 
the particular requirements for the papers to be pro- 
duced ; but in mills using a considerable quantity, lime 
is, on account of its cheapness, generally employed to 
effect the separation of the non-cellulose substances. 

Very good results are said to be obtained by boiling 
the jute with lime, under pressure, and then allowing 
it to stand, loosely stacked, in contact with the excess 
of lime that has been used in boiling. 

After standing for some time the jute is washed and 
again boiled, this time with soda-ash under atmospheric 
pressure. The bleaching is conducted in the usual 
way by means of the bleaching powder solution ; but 
instead of running in the amount necessary at one 
time, it is run in in small quantities, and before each 
supply is added the contents of the engine are tested 
by potassium iodide and starch papers, to ensure that 
all the chlorine has acted on the incrusting substances. 
In this way the fibres are said to be better preserved 
in their original strength. 

In continental mills, where the old method of gas 
bleaching is still in vogue, jute is sometimes subjected 
to a preliminary bleaching by means of chlorine gas, 
before being bleached by the bleaching powder solu- 
tion. The following method is said to produce a very 
satisfactory pulp. 

The jute is boiled with a solution of milk of lime, at 
a pressure of about twenty-two pounds per square inch, 
for ten to twelve hours, the weight of lime used being 



16 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

about 15 per cent., calculated on the raw material. 
After draining and washing the boiled jute is passed 
through a centrifugal machine and so freed from 
moisture as to be readily acted on by the chlorine gas, 
which is the next feature of the process. 

The chlorine gas is prepared in the usual way from 
hydrochloric acid and black oxide of manganese, and 
great care is taken that none of the hydrochloric acid 
finds its way into the bleaching chamber, otherwise 
the pulp would be rendered less strong. The jute is 
stacked in such a way as to be readily permeated by 
the gaseous chlorine, and is allowed to remain under 
its influence until the colour of a sample drawn out 
shows that it is about three-quarters bleached. 

After lifting, the partially bleached jute is washed in 
the potcher with water containing a I per cent, solu- 
tion of ammonia soda, which serves to dissolve the 
yellow chlorine compound that has been formed by the 
action of the gas on the incrusting substances. This 
washing completed, the stack is bleached in the usual 
manner with from 6 to 8 per cent, of bleaching 
powder solution. The amount of time and handling 
necessary for such a method as that described would 
lead to the supposition that it is very doubtful if, in the 
end, such methods pay. 



CHAPTER III. 

WET PICKING. — WASHING, BREAKING, AND 
BLEACHING. — ELECTROLYTIC BLEACHING. 
—ANTICHLOR. 

Wet Picking. — It is the practice in most mills to 
subject the boiled rags to another overhauling, or "wet 
picking," as it is usually termed. The idea of this is 
to insure the removal of any buttons, pieces of india- 
rubber, or other unsuitable materials which may have 
been overlooked in the rag-house, or have become 
apparent through the action of the soda, before the 
treatment in the washing engine renders their detection 
and removal so difficult as to be almost impossible. 

Washing, Breaking, and Bleaching. — These three 
operations are usually conducted in the same engine. 
The washing is generally accomplished by means of 
a drum washer, which is perhaps the most effective 
and time-saving method that has as yet been adopted 
for rags. The clear water should be run in so that 
it may mix with the rags before they come under the 

17 2 



1 8 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

roll, and the drum should be placed so that it may 
rest on the rags just as they have rounded the end of 
the midfeather on the return journey. This is not so 
near the roll as to run the risk of lifting the finest 
fibres brought to the surface by the agitation, nor yet 
so far from it as to allow the dirt to settle down on 
the rags again. 

The way in which the washing is conducted deter- 
mines, within certain limits, the percentage of loss 
caused by the finest fibres passing away with the 
washing water through the meshes of the wire cover- 
ing of the drum. Until the dirt has been freed from 
the interstices of the rags the roll should simply brush 
them, and thus by opening them up assist the water in 
carrying the dirt away. If the roll be put down to a 
hard grip before the dirt has been loosened it is almost 
impossible to wash them clean ; and further, it has the 
effect of making the stuff short and free, or fast, as 
some prefer to call it, thus in a large degree impairing 
the strength. 

There are two conditions indispensable to the pro- 
duction of strong, flexible, clean half-stuff — namely, 
dull tackle and plenty of time. To obtain a rag at its 
full strength, the breaking must not be carried further 
than is necessary to break up the fabric. When that 
is accomplished the roll should simply brush out the 
half-stuff, so that it may be strengthened by the 
milling, and yet kept as long as possible consistent 
with being "out of the rag." This can only be ob- 



BREAKING IN HALF-STUFF. 19 

tained by having blunt plates and rolls. The bars in 
the plate are usually tapered away to one-eighth 01 
an inch. 

If the roll or the plate be too sharp, or too quickly 
brought together, the fibres, instead of being drawn 
out, will be cut, and rendered so free that they will 
not soften, even when allowed to mill for five or six 
hours. Thread and strong rags cut with the rag- 
cutting machine are very liable to gather into lumps 
before the roll, and to enable them to travel they 
have to be gripped more firmly at first than would 
otherwise be the case. When they have begun to 
travel the roll should be raised to a pitch which will 
not reduce them too much. 

When the colour of the water leaving the drum 
shows that the dirt or colouring matter is well washed 
out, a good plan is to allow the drainings from the 
bleaching-house tanks to run on the rags for some 
time, still keeping the drum in action. When not used 
for this purpose the drainings may, with advantage, be 
used to dissolve fresh quantities of bleaching powder. 
When the dirt or colouring matter has been com- 
pletely washed out, the drum should be raised and 
the bleaching solution run in. If it should happen 
that the bleach is added before the washing is com- 
pleted, the dirt will become fixed on the fibres in such 
a way that no subsequent washing will serve to take 
it out. 

Bleaching powder, or chloride of lime, is made by 



20 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

saturating slaked lime with chlorine gas. When the 
compound thus obtained is dissolved in water, bleach- 
ing liquor, consisting of chloride and hypochlorite of 
lime, is formed, while the calcium hydrate is left as 
the lime mud. Chlorine gas in the dry state possesses 
no bleaching properties, but in the presence of moisture 
it decomposes the water, taking up the hydrogen to 
form hydrochloric acid and liberating the oxygen. 

The oxygen thus set free has powerful oxidising 
properties, which are rendered the more active from 
its being in what is technically known as the nascent 
state. It attacks the vegetable colouring matters, and 
by destroying them imparts the white shade charac- 
teristic of bleached stock. 

The old method of gas bleaching depends on this 
direct action of the chlorine gas when brought into 
contact with the wet half-stuff. Unless under ex- 
ceptional circumstances, bleaching powder has quite 
superseded the gas-bleaching method. 

This is due to the facility with which it can be 
applied, as well as to the increased yield of pulp ; a 
much larger proportion being attacked and destroyed 
by the chlorine gas than is the case when the less 
drastic action of the hypochlorous acid of the bleaching 
solution is employed. 

When the materials to be bleached are more than 
usually dirty or high-coloured, heat is often used to 
assist the action of the bleach in producing a good 
colour. Great care must be taken to see that the 



BLEACHING RAGS 21 

temperature does not exceed 90 Fahr., otherwise the 
stuff will be shortened, and the colour obtained will 
go back, especially if allowed to lie for any length of 
time before using. 

Another method of obtaining a good colour is to 
add to the stock, while in contact with the bleaching 
solution, an agent which will, by decomposing the 
bleach, render it more effective. Sulphuric acid is 
often employed to do this, and, within certain limits, 
it has the desired effect. Its use is, however, attended 
with the serious drawback that if it be added in excess 
chlorine will be liberated. This chlorine attacks the 
fibres and weakens them. When only a small quantity 
of sulphuric acid acts on the bleaching solution, hypo- 
chlorous acid is liberated. 

Hypochlorous acid is decomposed and yields its 
oxygen very easily, and in so doing is reduced to 
hydrochloric acid, which acts less injuriously on the 
fibres than chlorine. 

Sulphate of alumina may be used with better results 
in preserving the strength of the fibres, probably due 
to the fact that the action being less violent there is 
less tendency to liberate the chlorine. 

Professor Lunge uses acetic acid to gain the same 
end, and he claims that there is no impairing of the 
strength of the fibres as is the case when chlorine is 
liberated, or even when the hydrochloric acid, which 
is formed from the decomposed hypochlorous acid, 
remains in contact with the stock. On adding acetic 



22 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

acid to the engine, the bleaching solution is decom- 
posed with the formation of hypochlorous acid and 
acetate of lime. 

The hypochlorous acid gives off its oxygen, becoming 
reduced to hydrochloric acid, which in the presence of 
the acetate of lime immediately acts on it, regenerating 
acetic acid and calcium chloride. It will thus be seen 
that only a very small quantity of acetic acid need be 
used, owing to its continuous regeneration. 

Another feature of importance is that the hydro- 
chloric acid does not remain long enough among the 
stock in the free state to do the fibres any injury. 
In the case of rags, which have been imperfectly 
washed and thus retain a large proportion of alkali, 
it is recommended that a less expensive acid, such as 
sulphuric, be used to neutralise the alkali before adding 
the acetic acid. 

In bleaching rags containing even a small proportion 
of jute, no auxiliary agent which has the effect of 
liberating chlorine should be used. If jute be treated 
with chlorine a characteristic yellow compound will be 
formed, and it is the formation of this yellow body which 
is the cause of the fading in the colour of jute con- 
taining stock when such agents as sulphuric acid or 
sulphate of alumina are used to assist in bringing up 
the colour. 

Dr. Lunge claims that acetic acid 'may be added to 
the engine before the bleach is run in ; but with the 
other agents the best results are obtained by adding 



BLEACHING RAGS. 23 

them to the pulp after the bleaching solution has 
become somewhat exhausted. 

When using steam it is better to allow the bleach 
to become thoroughly mixed before heating it. The 
amount of bleach required to give a good colour varies 
with the quantity of dirt or colouring matter to be 
destroyed, and the treatment which the material has 
received in the boiler. Imperfectly boiled stock always 
consumes a much larger proportion before coming to 
a good colour. 

Clean cotton and linen rags will require from I to 
2 per cent., calculated on the dry bleaching powder, 
while the coarser grades will require 5 to 6 per cent. 
The addition of a little alumina or sulphuric acid to 
the better grades of cotton and linen rags has the 
effect of killing the black threads often present. 

It is very important that the bleaching solution be 
maintained at a uniform strength, otherwise the colour 
will not be regular in shade. A solution which stands 
6° Twaddle contains about half a pound of bleaching 
powder to each gallon. Bleaching powder seldom 
contains more than about 35 per cent, available 
chlorine, which is equivalent to saying that only 
35 per cent, of the weight of the powder dissolved 
has the power of bleaching the stock. 

Owing to the amount of calcium chlorate present in 
some bleaching powders, the available chlorine does 
not exceed 25 to 28 per cent. Calcium chlorate pos- 
sesses no bleaching power, and even in the best grades 



24 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

of bleaching powder the lime mud often retains a 
considerable amount of chlorine. In storing the powder 
prior to dissolving, it should be kept as cool as pos- 
sible, as it is very liable to be decomposed with the 
formation of unavailable calcium chlorate if the sur- 
rounding atmosphere is heated. 

The most suitable vessel in which to conduct the 
extraction of the chlorine is a circular iron tank fitted 
with a mechanical agitator, so as to insure that all the 
powder may come into contact with the water. As 
chlorine is so liable to be decomposed by the action 
of light, the vessels should be fitted with a covering 
so as to exclude it as much as possible. A con- 
venient size of mixer is one which will contain about 
7 cwts. of bleaching powder and 900 gallons of 
water. 

The agitation should be kept up for at least two 
hours, and the time allowed for settling should not be 
less than seven or eight hours, as a muddy solution 
is much less active than one which is clear, besides 
leaving a deposit of lime on the fibres, which is liable 
to cause unevenness in the subsequent sizing opera- 
tion, and to cause the spots which, at times, are such 
a nuisance in the machine wire. 

After the first liquor has been run off, the tank 
should be filled up again with water or weak liquor 
drained from the bleaching house tanks, and the 
agitation and settling conducted as with the first 
extraction. A third liquor may be taken off and used 



ELECTROLYTIC BLEACHING. 25 

either for bleaching or for extracting a fresh supply 
of bleaching powder. A sufficient number of mixers 
should be used as to admit of running off a first and 
a second liquor together, and a third also, if it is to 
be used for bleaching, otherwise the strength of the 
solution as used at the potcher will not be uniform. 

By -draining the lime mud and using the liquor thus 
extracted, either to dissolve fresh powder or to mix 
with the bleaching solution, if it be sufficiently clean 
and of uniform strength, a very considerable amount 
of bleaching powder may be saved, espec ally in mills 
where the consumption is a large one. 

Electrolytic Bleaching. — Within the last few years 
a great many experiments have been tried, with a view 
to superseding the expensive bleaching powder, by 
making use of the electric current to set free the 
oxygen contained in water, and thus make it available 
for bleaching purposes. It is well known that the 
oxygen generated from water by electrolysis has the 
power of decomposing colouring matters. The chief 
difficulty in the way of using the oxygen thus liberated 
lies in the fact that, though the incrusting matters are 
certainly removed from the fibres, they are liable to 
assume a brown colour on entering into combination 
with the oxygen. This brown colour can only be 
removed by using chlorine to decompose and bleach it. 

Another method of bleaching without the use of 
chlorine, which, however, is still in the experimental 



26 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

stage, consists in treating the stock with ozone, or, as 
it may be termed, "active oxygen." When an electric 
spark is passed through a jar containing air, it is found 
that the oxygen present has acquired much stronger 
oxidising properties. The oxygen which has under- 
gone this change has been named ozone, and possesses 
much more effective bleaching power than ordinary 
oxygen. 

In bleaching with this agent the oxygen, which has 
been in contact with the electric sparks, and thus 
contains a larger proportion of ozone, is led by a pipe 
to the bottom of the vat in which the stock to be 
bleached is placed. In its upward passage through 
the stock this ozonised oxygen is said to destroy the 
colouring matters so effectively that its advocates claim 
it to be 70 per cent, cheaper than the use of bleaching 
powder. 

In another class of processes the electric current is 
made use of to render cheap chlorine compounds, 
such as chloride of magnesia, available for bleaching 
purposes by liberating the chlorine contained in them. 
The process which has, by reason of its practical 
application, claimed most attention from paper-makers 
is that of M. Hermite. The bleaching solution used 
in this method is obtained by decomposing a 5 per 
cent, solution of magnesium chloride by means of an 
electric current. 

As the decomposition proceeds, magnesium and 
hydrogen are given off at the negative pole, while the 



HERMITE'S METHOD. 27 

chlorine and oxygen go to the positive. The chlorine 
takes up the oxygen to form hypochloric acid, which 
is in turn decomposed with the formation of chlorous 
and chloric acids. As these acids yield their oxygen 
to bleach the stock, magnesium chloride is again formed 
and again decomposed as before, thus making the 
process continuous. 

The loss in chemicals is made up by the addition 
of fresh quantities of the magnesium chloride. The 
bleaching solution prepared in this way is said to 
possess greater bleaching properties than a solution 
of bleaching powder containing the same percentage 
of available chlorine. 

It is the practice in some mills to run the bleached 
stock into large chests fitted with perforated bottoms, 
through which the weak liquor is allowed to drain. 
In mills where a large stock is kept the rags may lie 
in the bleaching-house for weeks, and while it is quite 
true that the colour will come up, owing to the action 
of the sunlight in decomposing the chlorine compounds 
remaining in the stock, yet, if the exposure be too 
long, the colour will go back, and in addition the rags 
will become tender, owing to the formation of the 
oxy-cellulose by the action of the oxygen of the air 
in the presence of light. 

This tendering and fading will be more apparent 
if auxiliary agents, such as sulphuric acid or sulphate 
of alumina, have been used in bleaching; and stock 
which has lain for a considerable time, especially if 



28 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

sulphuric acid has been used, will often be found to 
have taken on a pinky tinge. 

These drawbacks to the use of a bleaching-house 
have led some paper-makers to discard it altogether, 
and to run the lags straight from the breaking engine, 
in which the bleaching has been conducted, to the 
beater. 

When this is done more bleach is required to give 
the same degree of whiteness, and owing to the 
presence of an increased amount of bleach in the un- 
drained rags, a larger quantity of antichlor is rendered 
necessary to neutralise the chlorine than is the case 
when they have been allowed to drain in the bleaching 
house tanks. The ordinary grades of cotton and linen 
rags will be found to be at their best, both as regards 
whiteness and strength, after having lain for twenty- 
four hours in the bleaching house. 

Antichlor. — Whether the stock has lain in the bleach- 
ing-house or has come direct from the washer, it retains 
chlorine to such an extent that the latter must be 
neutralised ; otherwise its presence will act injuriously 
on the fibres, besides seriously complicating the re- 
actions on which the sizing process depends for its 
efficacy. 

The two forms of neutralising agents, or "antichlors," 
as they are termed, most commonly used are hypo- 
sulphite of soda and sulphite of soda. When hypo- 
sulphite of soda is employed, the reaction which 



ANTICHLOR. 29 

takes place may be represented by the following 
equation : — 

2 Ca Cl 2 2 + Na 2 S 2 3 + H 2 O = 2 Ca S0 4 + 2 H CI + 2 Na CI. 
which shows that the bleaching solution remaining in 
the pulp is decomposed with the formation of calcium 
sulphate, sodium chloride, and hydrochloric acid. 

The formation of the last-named constitutes a draw- 
back to the use of this agent, as, apart from its injurious 
action on the pulp, the acid tends to eat into the 
machine wire and so shorten its life. This latter 
action, however, is not so injurious as is commonly 
supposed, as the writer knows a machine the wires 
on which, though carrying nothing but rag stuff treated 
with the hyposulphite, run for thirteen and even four- 
teen weeks. 

When using it great care must be taken to avoid an 
excess, as, though not generally suspected, the reason 
why so many photographs become stained and spotted, 
even when not exposed to the action of light and air, 
is that an excess of hyposulphite of soda has been used 
in the engine, the presence of which in the cardboard 
used for mounting has caused the discoloration. 

A glance at the following equation will show that 
when sulphite of sodium is used none of the resulting 
compounds will have any injurious effect either on the 
paper or the wire : — 

Ca O CI, O + 2 Na 2 S0 3 = Ca S0 4 + Na 2 S0 4 + 2 Na CI. 
Should an excess of sulphite of soda be used in the 



30 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

making of photograph mounts, it is asserted that no 
bad results will ensue, and the same applies to all 
colouring or toning. These reasons have led many 
paper-makers to adopt it in preference to the hypo- 
sulphite. It should be borne in mind, however, that 
it takes about four parts of the sulphite to do the work 
done by one part of the hyposulphite. 

When using rags the best plan to ensure the com- 
plete neutralisation of the chlorine, without using 
an excess of antichlor, is to supply the beater-man 
with a bottle of potassium iodide and starch solution, 
with instructions to put in one-half of the usual amount 
of antichlor while running in the water, and after the 
rags are furnished, gradually to add the remaining 
half until the blue stain produced on the addition of 
a drop of the testing solution to the pulp has grown 
faint and finally disappeared. To make this test satis- 
factory it should be performed before the addition of the 
alum, otherwise it is not so much to be depended upon. 

No doubt all this attention means extra work for 
the beater-man, but there are few beater-men who, if 
the foreman will but spare the time to explain what 
the neglect of the precautions may lead to, will not 
gladly give the attention necessary. Such care will 
not only ensure satisfaction to the purchaser, but will 
also save the beater-man a considerable amount of 
trouble, in giving a more uniform shade, and guarding 
against the unaccountable rises and falls in colour 
which are of so frequent occurrence in some mills. 



Plate III. 




Fig. 5. — Chemical Wood x 130. 




Fig. 6. — Mechanical Wood x 130. 



[To face f>age 31. 



CHAPTER IV. 

CELLULOSE FROM WOOD.— MECHANICAL WOOD 
PULP. 

^Cellulose from Wood. — Comparatively few paper- 
makers in this country prepare their own wood pulp, 
most of the supply being obtained from the Swedish and 
Norwegian pulp mills. A knowledge of the principles 
on which the different processes for obtaining the 
cellulose are based, and the effect of the treatment on 
the pulp produced, is, however, indispensable to the 
paper-maker, that he may be able to determine which 
pulp is most suited to his particular requirements. 
^ Wood, like jute, belongs to the class of ligno-cellu- 
loses, and is composed of about two parts of cellulose, 
intimately bound up with one part of non-cellulose or 
lignin. The processes employed to break up this 
combination may be classed under three heads. First, 
the alkali process, which takes in the methods depend- 
ing on the use of caustic soda. Second, the acid 
process, under which may be arranged the various 

3* 



32 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

methods based on the reducing action of sulphurous 
acid in the gaseous or liquid state. 

Midway between these two classes stand those of 
Dahl, Blitz, and Cross, the former of which employs 
a solution of sodium compounds containing a large 
percentage of sulphate of soda, and is known as the 
sulphate process. The process patented by Cross, 
mainly with the idea of rendering the use of lead- 
lined boilers unnecessary, while depending on the 
action of neutral solutions of the bisulphites provides 
for the use of alkalies. The boiling in Blitz's process 
is conducted by a solution of sodium sulphide, to 
which is added a very small proportion of vanadate 
of ammonia. 

Whatever may be the process employed to produce 
the cellulose, the wood must first undergo a preli- 
minary mechanical treatment in order that the pulp 
may be of a uniform character. The trees are first 
sawn into small logs, which are then stripped of the 
bark and cut into boards by passing through a slitting 
machine. The knots are next bored or cut out, and 
the boards broken into small chips by a breaking 
machine. The chips are then passed under heavy 
rollers, which bruise them in such a way as to allow 
the boiling solution to thoroughly soak them, and 
finally passed along revolving screens through which 
the dirt and dust, set free by the crushing, escape, 
while the clean chips are carried on to the boiler or 
store house as they may be wanted. 



WATT AND BURGESS PROCESS. 33 

The caustic soda process of Watt and Burgess may 
be taken as the typical alkali method of isolating the 
wood cellulose. In this process the wood, having been 
subjected to such a treatment as that described, is 
digested in a large boiler with a strong solution of 
caustic soda, under a pressure of about ninety pounds, 
for ton or twelve hours. It is the necessity for em-, 
ploying such high temperatures and pressures that 
constitutes the serious drawback to the alkali pro- 
cesses, as under the conditions of boiling the strong 
caustic solution acts on the cellulose, impairing the 
strength and reducing the yield. The reason why 
such conditions are necessary is, that the soluble acid 
bodies resolved by the caustic become so oxidised and 
condensed that they counteract and weaken the reduc- 
ing action of the soda, and in order to equalise their 
resistance higher temperatures and pressures have to 
be employed. 

It is with a view to prevent the oxidisation of these 
acid bodies that the soluble bisulphide of sodium is 
used by Dahl. Notwithstanding the presence of this 
reducing agent, the pressure employed is high. It is 
in doing away with these counter-influences that the 
chief advantages of the acid processes lie. By using a 
solution of a bisulphite, such as lime or magnesia, the 
acid bodies are removed by entering into combination 
with the base, at the same time setting free the sul- 
phurous acid, which acts on the unresolved wood, until 
all the non-cellulose substances have been removed. 

3 



34 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

In Ekman's process the wood is digested in a large 
lead-lined, jacketed boiler, fitted so as to revolve when 
desired. The solution used is prepared by passing 
sulphurous acid gas, produced from burning sulphur 
in a stream of air, up through a tower in which the 
magnesia, with which it combines to form the bisul- 
phite, is loosely spread out. A stream of water, 
running down through the tower, meets the sulphurous 
fumes in their upward course, and carries them into 
solution. 

Care is taken that the sulphurous acid and magnesia 
are kept at the proportions necessary to produce a 
double sulphite. The strength of the bisulphite solu- 
tion thus obtained is about one-and-a-half per cent, of 
magnesia and four-and-a-half per cent, of sulphurous 
acid. When the steam is turned on, the pressure in 
the inner chamber increases with greater rapidity than 
in the outer, owing to the tension of the sulphurous 
vapour ; but it is said that the best results are obtained 
by keeping the difference between the two pressures 
under thirty pounds. 

As the pressure increases, the blow-off cock is 
opened that the gases may escape, and thus avoid 
over-heating and consequent discolouring of the wood. 
In about seven or eight hours the pressure reaches 
eighty-five to ninety pounds, and after about three 
hours' boiling at that pressure the action is stopped, 
and the wood, after washing and draining, is ready to 
be bleached. 



PARTINGTON AND MITSCHERLICH PROCESSES. 35 

In the Partington process the sulphurous gas is led 
into tanks containing milk of lime, and a bisulphite of 
lime solution at once obtained. By this method the 
boiling can be completed in from sixteen to eighteen 
hours, though in some cases, when increased pressure 
is employed, the time required is a little less. 

While the principle underlying the various sulphite 
processes is the same in each case, they are divided 
into two classes, owing to the duration, or rather the 
differences which exist in the duration, of boiling. In 
what are termed the " quick " processes, the boiling 
is completed in from twelve to sixteen hours. To 
accomplish the complete separation of the cellulose and 
the non-cellulose substances in that time, a strong acid 
solution, at a high temperature, must be employed. 

In the Mitscherlich process the solution used is 
much weaker, and contains a greater proportion of 
base. The result is that the boiling must be extended 
from forty to sixty hours, and the pressure is also 
much lower. By this latter treatment it is claimed that 
a larger percentage yield is obtained than by the quick 
methods of boiling. It is, however, difficult to see 
where this increase can come from, unless the incrust- 
ing substances are imperfectly removed, and so add 
to the weight of pulp produced. If this is the case it 
will soon make itself known by the increased amount 
of bleach necessary to give a good colour. 

Wood and jute show a close analogy in chemical 
composition, and the difficulty experienced in bleaching 



36 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

wood, from which all the incrusting matter has not 
been removed by the boiling, is due to the formation 
of a yellow chlorine compound similar to that produced 
when chlorine acts on jute. This yellow body must 
first be bleached before the cellulose is brought to a 
good white colour, and the amount of chlorine neces- 
sary to do this acts very injuriously on the fibres. 

This weakening is also noticeable in highly bleached 
sulphite pulps; and though the degree of whiteness 
obtained, by using a large amount of bleach, makes 
such pulps suitable for the better qualities of paper, it 
is obtained at the sacrifice of much of the original 
strength and elasticity of the fibres. 

Though Dahl's process is generally known by the 
term "sulphate," the solution employed to digest the 
wood contains other sodium compounds. It is prin- 
cipally composed of sodium sulphate, sodium sulphide, 
and sodium hydrate, and the strength of the recovered 
solution is maintained by the addition of fresh quan- 
tities of sodium sulphate. This process is said to 
possess a slight advantage over the caustic alkali 
methods in point of economy; but it is the general 
opinion among paper-makers that the pulp produced is 
inferior in strength, and less free from incrusting sub- 
stances, than that obtained from the sulphite processes. 
Owing to the presence of these incrusting matters 
sulphate wood is, however, more suitable for the 
making of papers which are wanted opaque. 

During recent years the demand for " sulphate " 



KRAFT BROWN PAPERS. 37 

pulp has increased largely, owing to the development 
of " Kraft " brown papers, which have entirely super- 
seded certain classes of browns formerly used for 
wrapping purposes. The remarkable development of 
the Kraft brown branch of the trade is due to the 
fact that the Scandinavian makers were quick to realise 
the" possibilities of pulp specially cooked to give the 
required characteristics. 

In order to produce a pulp suitable for the Kraft 
papers, the boiling is conducted so as to ensure that 
encrustating matters are not fully resolved, with the 
result that the fibres are not injured, and retain their 
original strength in a marked degree. 

It is a matter of much discussion among British 
paper-makers as to whether the characteristics obtained 
in the finished sheet are the result of the methods of 
boiling or the manner of beating, but it is probable 
that they are due to a judicious combination ; and the 
fact remains that, notwithstanding painstaking ex- 
periments on the part of British makers, no Kraft 
yet produced in this country combines the crispness 
and elasticity which form so distinctive a feature of 
the Kraft papers produced by the best Scandinavian 
mills. 

Another theory held to account for the superiority 
of the Scandinavian product is that the change in 
physical properties resulting from the action of ^the 
hot cylinders of the pulp machines, when the pulp is 
dried previous to being shipped, constitutes a serious 



38 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

drawback to the production of strong, tough paper. 
With a view to overcoming this defect some British 
makers have shipped sulphate pulp containing 50 per 
cent, moisture ; but notwithstanding that this pulp 
was specially prepared with a view to produce Kraft 
papers, the results cannot be said to have justified the 
increased cost incurred. It would seem that, owing 
to the presence of the by-products in the boiled pulp, 
the time allowed to elapse between the finish of the 
cooking and the beating or milling operation must de- 
termine to a large extent the properties of the finished 
product. Apart from such considerations as to boiling, 
the ability of the Scandinavian makers to allow a 
considerable time for milling the pulp in kollergangs or 
beaters must always remain a very considerable asset 
in their favour for the production of a crisp, tough 
Kraft paper. 

A careful examination of the samples of the best 
Kraft papers will show that the individual fibres of 
the Scandinavian papers are much longer than those 
in the papers produced by British makers, and it is 
very probable that, even if the home maker could 
treat his pulp so as to retain the length of the fibres 
in the like degree, the product would be lacking in 
firmness and "rattle." 

It would thus seem that the well-known character- 
istics of the Scandinavian papers are the result of the 
exceptional conditions under which they are prepared ; 
and having regard to the practically unlimited supply 



SCOTCH WOOD PULP PROCESS. 39 

of power at the command of the manufacturers at a 
nominal cost, it will be readily understood that the local 
conditions lend themselves in an exceptional manner 
to the requirements most desirable in the case. 

In a Scotch mill, making a speciality of its wood pulp 
papers, the wood is treated with a bisulphite of lime 
solution, prepared by passing the sulphurous fumes 
into a tower containing the limestone, through which 
a stream of water is kept running. With the solution 
thus obtained a charge of eight tons of wood is boiled 
in a large rotary boiler, under a pressure of 57 lbs., 
for seven hours, when the pressure is lowered for a 
few minutes by opening the blow-off valve and allow- 
ing the volatile compounds to escape, and again 
increased, this time to 80 lbs. This pressure is 
maintained for twelve hours. 

The boiled wood, after washing, is emptied into a 
large pit beneath the boiler, from which, after draining, 
it is lifted into boxes, pressed, and taken to the 
breaker, or washer, as it may more correctly be termed. 
After washing, by means of a drum, the wood pulp is 
emptied into a chest, from which it is pumped to flat- 
bottomed strainers similar to those used in connection 
with the presse-pdte. The strainer pulp is next run 
into the potcher in which the bleaching is conducted. 

After the wood has received a preliminary bleaching 
the washing-drum is let down, and the chlorine com- 
pounds, formed by the action of the bleach on the 
imperfectly removed incrusting matters, washed out. 



4 o PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

After this washing is completed the amount of bleach 
necessary to bring to a good colour is run in, and 
when the colour is up the wood is emptied into the 
draining-chests, where it lies until wanted. 

The pulp produced by this process is strong, and 
comes to a good colour when bleached. It has, more- 
over, one distinct advantage over many of the wood 
pulps in the market, in that it comes to a soft, greasy 
condition with comparatively little milling, with the 
result that the papers made from it, especially the lighter 
weights, possess a strong yet silky feel. 

At the present time considerable attention is being 
directed by British makers to the soda process, owing 
to the introduction and increased use of poplar pulp 
produced by the soda process. As is well known, 
American paper-makers have relied on poplar and 
similar soft woods for the production of papers which in 
this country are made mostly from esparto grass, and 
it is somewhat curious that poplar pulp should now 
be a recognised material for blending with esparto in 
British mills. 

The methods employed in American and Canadian 
mills for the isolation of the poplar fibres by means 
of the soda process differ very little from those 
originally used by Watt and Burgess, excepting that 
the tendency is to increase the pressure and shorten 
the time in boiling. Owing to the very drastic action 
of the soda solution when employed in conjunction 
with a pressure of between 100 lbs. to I io lbs., the 



MECHANICAL WOOD PULP. 41 

time employed on the preliminary processes may be 
curtailed considerably, the knots being so acted upon 
as to be easily removed by the strainers on the pulp 
machine. The freedom from dirt and small chips 
which the bleached pulp displays when being reeled 
up at the end of the pulp machine is very striking. 

Touproduce a good colour on poplar pulp prepared 
by the soda process it is essential that the washing be 
sufficient to remove the combinations which have re- 
sulted by the union of the soda with the acids contained 
in the wood ; and in order to effect this, the method 
employed is very similar to that used in the washing 
of esparto grass, as in each case it is important to 
ensure that complete removal of the objectionable 
compounds without unduly reducing the strength of 
the liquor to be subsequently treated in the recovery 
process. 

The methods of boiling and bleaching vary slightly 
in the different mills, but as a rule a well-boiled, well- 
washed poplar pulp will come to a good colour with 
about 12 per cent, of bleaching powder. 

Mechanical Wood Pulp. — A large portion of the wood 
used in paper-making has been subjected to no chemical 
treatment, and is known as " mechanical wood," to 
distinguish it from the pulps produced by the various 
chemical processes. The mechanical wood is obtained 
by pressing large blocks of wood against revolving 
grindstones, which tear the fibres from the mass. The 



42 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

ground wood is washed from the stones by means of 
a continuous flow of water, and carried through a 
series of screens, in which the dirt and small chips 
are separated from the fibres. 

Though the blocks of wood are placed so that the 
fibres will be torn laterally, the grinding action of 
the stone has the effect of making them very short, 
and this, together with the incrusting matter with 
which they are surrounded, deprives them of their 
felting power to a large extent. 

In order to get as long a fibre as possible, the 
wood is sometimes steamed for ten or twelve hours, 
previous to grinding, that the fibres may yield more 
readily to the tearing action of the stone, and thus 
be torn at a greater length. At best the pulp thus 
produced is possessed of little felting power, and is 
not suitable for any but inferior grades of paper 
such as news or low quality printings. 

Apart from the poor felting properties of the fibres, 
the lignin contained in the wood is acted on by air 
and light if exposed for any length of time. It is 
this oxidising and decomposing action which is the 
cause of the discoloration of paper containing even 
a small proportion of mechanical wood pulp. 

Notwithstanding these serious defects, mechanical 
wood is largely used as a filling material, owing to 
its low price and opacity. Because of the latter 
property it is much used to counteract the trans- 
parency of papers made from sulphite wood. As 



MECHANICAL WOOD PULP. 



43 



much as 70 per cent, is often used in the manu- 
facture of news, and even with no other fibre than 
30 per cent, of sulphate or sulphite wood a good 
news is produced. 



Table 


of Composition of 


Woods 


(Muller). 






Birch. Beech. 


Lime. 


Pine. 


Poplar. 


m 


Per cent. Per cent. 


Per cent 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Cellulose 


• 55-S2 . 45-47 


• 53-09 


• 56-99 


62-77 


Resin . 


. 1-14 . 0-41 


• 3-93 


• 0-97 


i-37 


Aqueous extract 


. 2-65 . 2-41 


• 3-56 


1-26 


2-88 


Water . 


. 12-48 . 12-57 


. io-io 


• I3-87 


I2-IO 


Lignin 


. 28-21 . 39-14 


• 29-32 


. 2691 


20-88 



CHAPTER V. 



ESPARTO AND STRAW. 



Analysis of Air-dried Samples (Muller). 





Spanish. 


African. 


Cellulose 


48-25 per cent. . 


. 45-80 per cent. 


Fat and Wax 


2-07 „ 


2-62 „ 


Aqueous extract . 


10-19 » 


• 9-8i „ 


Pectous substances 


26-39 „ 


• 29-30 „ 


Water . 


9-38 „ 


. 8-8o „ 


Ash . . 


377 ., 


• 3-67 ,. 



A glance at the foregoing analysis will reveal that the 
amount of cellulose contained in esparto does not quite 
reach 50 per cent. That means that, given the best 
working conditions, 20 cwts. of esparto will not produce 
much more than 9§ cwts. of paper. 

Before this amount can be rendered available for 
paper-making, the 10 cwts. of non-available materials 
must be got rid of. Not only do they require to be 
separated from the cellulose, but they must be re- 
moved in such a manner as will prevent any recombi- 
nation which would tend to injure the cellulose. 
Caustic soda has been found most suitable for this 



w 



•/ 



■&> 






// 



W : // 



Fig. 7. — Esparto x 130. 



\ 



\ 



Fig. 8. — Straw x 130. 



[To face page 44. 



RATIONALE OF ESPARTO BOILING. 45 

purpose, both on account of its reducing and com- 
bining power. 

When esparto is treated with a hot solution of 
caustic soda, the gummy, resinous, and waxy sub- 
stances, together with the silica which forms the 
waterproof coating of the whole, are dissolved — the 
former ■ as fatty and resinous soaps, the latter as 
silicate of soda. The percentage turn-out of winter 
cellulose will be less than of that cut in the summer, 
for this reason, that the winter cellulose will contain 
more moisture than the summer. This being so, 
it will require a smaller quantity of soda to boil 
with. 

Before purchasing a supply of esparto, or in fact 
any other paper-making material, a sufficient quantity 
should always be secured to admit of a practical test 
being made, so that the paper-maker may know 
whether the amount of available material contained 
is in proportion to the money he has to pay for it. 
A neglect of this precaution, especially in a mill 
where large quantities are used, may and does often 
mean the loss of a considerable amount of money 
in a year. 

After the bales of grass have been freed from the 
hoops or ropes with which they are held together, 
the small bundles are fed into the dusting machine, 
which breaks them up and dusts them at the same 
time. 

The endless felt which receives the dusted grass 



46 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

as it leaves the duster may be extended so as to 
deliver it right over the boiler mouth, and should 
be so placed that space enough is left on either 
side for sorters, should there be any necessity for 
removing knots and roots, which might become 
broken up by the action of the soda, and so pass 
through the strainers of the presse-pdte, and cause 
black or brown specks to appear in the paper. 

Esparto, owing to its pectous nature, yields with 
comparatively little resistance to the reducing action 
of the soda. While it is quite possible to set free 
the cellulose by boiling under very low pressures, 
or even in open boilers, it is necessary to use strong 
solutions, and to extend the treatment over a much 
longer time than is required when the pressure em- 
ployed is high. 

As a rule, the higher the pressure employed the 
less soda is required to do the work ; but this applies 
only within certain limits, as the use of high pressures 
is very liable to induce recombinations of the non- 
cellulose constituents which, in addition to damaging 
the pulp, hinder the reducing action of the soda. 

If vomiting boilers are used, the work of boiling 
40 to 50 cwts. of grass can be accomplished in 2\ to 
3 hours, under a pressure of from 30 to 40- lbs., 
using 14 to 16 per cent, of JO per cent, caustic 
on the raw material. 

The conditions of working vary in nearly every 
mill, in accordance with the quality of the paper to 



ESPARTO BOILING AND DRAINING. 47 

be made, so that no hard-and-fast rule as to tempera- 
ture, duration of boiling or strength of solution, can 
be set down. It should, however, be borne in mind 
that when the grass used is difficult to bleach it is 
better and more economical to boil with half a pound, 
or even a pound, more caustic per cwt. than to use 
extra bleach to give the desired colour. 

The additional caustic will not impair the strength 
of the grass unless the temperature employed be much 
higher than usual, while it will have the effect of 
softening the fibres and rendering them more easily 
penetrated by the bleach. Extra bleach means extra 
antichlor, injury to the presse-pdte wire, and, in a marked 
degree, weakening of the original strength, together 
with the production of much powdery fibre. 

Whatever be the material treated, concentrated solu- 
tions of caustic soda perform the work much more 
expeditiously and effectively than dilute ones ; so that 
a better result will be obtained by putting in as large 
a quantity of the material as possible, thus leaving less 
space to be filled up with water, than by boiling a 
smaller amount with a more dilute solution. 

After the boiling is completed, the steam from the 
blow-off should be used to heat the water to be used 
for washing. 

When all the spent lye has been run to the roaster 
tanks, assuming that it is to be evaporated and re- 
covered, the grass should be treated with hot water, 
the hotter the better, as when hot it frees the fibres 



48 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

from the fatty and soapy substances which still cling 
to them. 

After standing for some time, this first water, as it 
is usually termed, is also run to the roaster and the 
boiler filled with clean cold water, which is allowed 
to remain in contact with the fibres until it is required. 
When this last water is run off it may be pumped to 
the blow-off tank, there to be heated by the blow-off 
steam, and used as a first water for the next 
boiling. 

In some mills the grass is taken straight from the 
boiler to the potcher, where it is washed by means 
of a drum similar to that used for washing rags. 
Many paper-makers object to this method of washing, 
as a large proportion of the finest fibres are very 
liable to pass through the meshes of the wirecloth 
covering and be carried away with the washing water. 

Very good results, both for cleanliness and yield of 
fibre, are obtained when the grass is washed in a 
system of tanks connected together in such a way 
that the water after rising to the top of the one passes 
to the other, and so on to the end of the series. The 
motion of the water is so slow that sufficient time is 
given to clean the grass without carrying away the 
finest fibres. 

When the grass in each chest is washed clean, the 
pipe connecting it with the next one is closed, and 
the water drained away through the perforated false 
bottom formed of iron plates. The grass generally lies 



ESPARTO WASHING AND BLEACHING. 



49 



in the chest for twenty-four hours, but can be washed 
much quicker when required. 

Another system of washing, said to give very good 
results, is that of treating the grass in the boiler with 
cold water under pressure. The pressure is main- 
tained by a force pump, and the outlet is into a tank 
above,. the boiler. This water can be heated and used 
to wash the next boiling. 

In some mills the grass is washed in the boiler by 
blowing a blast of air into the water, and thus creating 
sufficient agitation to free the fibres from the non- 
cellulose substances which still cling to them. In this 
way a boiling can be well washed in four hours when 
the water is changed three or four times. The chief 
advantage of washing in the boiler lies in the saving 
of time and labour effected, as compared with the 
washing in tanks. 

When steam is used to aid in bringing up the 
colour great care must be taken not to overheat, or 
the strength will be impaired and the colour go back. 
Eight cwts. of grass, reckoned on the raw material, 
should be perfectly bleached in about 2 or 2,\ hours 
with about 8 per cent, of bleach. 

The bleach should be run in with the water while 
furnishing, and when full the steam should be turned 
on. When the heat is up, which will be in about 
twenty minutes, it should be turned off. The steam 
cocks should be perfectly tight, as if they allow steam 
to pass when shut the grass will be in danger of being 

4 



50 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

overheated, and this is especially so when it is left 
standing in the potcher for any length of time. The 
same care must be taken in using the antichlor, as is 
necessary with rags, that no excess be present. 

It is the practice in some mills to run the grass over 
the presse-pdte before bleaching, so that the wire may 
not be damaged by the acid set free when the antichlor 
decomposes the bleach. Unless the grass has been 
properly boiled, the roots and hard ends will not yield 
to the action of the bleaching solution, and owing to 
the hardness of the fibres they will not go through 
the plates of the presse-pdte strainer. 

Though the percentage of cellulose contained in straw 
is nearly as high as that from esparto, the yield of 
available paper-making material is not so high. Owing 
to the chemical and physical characteristics of straw, 
it requires to be boiled with a larger proportion of soda 
than is necessary for esparto. The compound cellulose, 
which constitutes the basis of the straw plant, contains 
a greater proportion of lignin than the esparto cellu- 
lose, and ligno-cellulose is much less susceptible to the 
reducing action of the caustic than pecto-cellulose. 

In addition to this, the knots must be so reduced 
in boiling that the bleaching solution will be able to 
saturate them without using an excessive quantity. 
The effect of this extra soda is that the finest fibres 
are liable to be carried away with the washing water, 
and thus the yield is often as much as 10 per cent, 
less than that from esparto 



STRAW BOILING. 51 

Straw is usually boiled in rotary boilers, as by using 
them the pulp is so reduced as to run through a pipe 
into the steeping tanks, and thus the lifting from the 
boilers is saved. The boiling pressure is also higher 
than for grass, fifty to sixty pounds being often employed. 

The boiled straw may be washed in large cement- 
covered tanks, and after draining be dug out and taken 
to the potcher to be bleached in the ordinary way. 
When it is to be used in the mill it may be run straight 
to the bleaching house to drain until wanted, but it 
is usually run over the presse-pdte in the same way 
as grass. 

Papers made from straw are, owing to the hard 
nature of the ultimate fibres, very hard and brittle. 
This want of flexibility is as much owing to the smooth, 
highly-polished surface of the fibres, as to their short- 
ness and stiffness. When 5 or 6 per cent, of good, 
clean straw pulp is used, the paper gets a firmer grip 
and rattle. 

Straw also helps the sizing, probably owing to the 
pores of the paper being filled up with the fine fibres, 
as much as to its hardness, but it is not suitable for 
papers which are wanted to bulk well. 



Analysis 


of Straw 


(Muller). 






Winter wheat. 




Winter rye. 


Cellulose 


46-60 per cent. 


. 


47 69 per cent. 


Fat and wax . 


i*49 




. 


I- 93 


Aqueous extracts . 


8-07 „ 




. 


°'°5 i 


Non-cellulose or lignin . 


2849 „ 




. 


267s 


Water .... 


9-85 n 




. 


"•38 „ 


Ash . 


5-50 „ 




. 


320 „ 



CHAPTER VI. 
BEATING. 

It is an accepted principle that in order to produce a 
paper which will have strength and tearing strain 
the fibres must be kept long in the beater ; and more 
especially does this apply to such thin papers as banks 
and loans. While it is quite true that long fibres do 
give these qualities to the papers made from them, it 
is also true that the fibres may be kept long and yet 
the paper produced possess less firmness and tensile 
strength than if they had been kept finer. 

Whether the fibres be long or short when they 
reach the machine, the properties of the paper made 
depend on the treatment they receive during the first 
hour-and-a-half in the beater. If the roll be put sharply 
down on the plate at first, the fibres, while still retaining 
their length, will become weakened, and the sheet will 
have a raw, soft feeling, which even the addition of 
more than the usual amount of starch will not over- 
come. 

Such stuff is generally termed "fast" or "free"; 



LONG AND SHORT FIBRES. 53 

and though for certain classes of papers, such as thick 
chromos and lithos, the thickness of which renders 
strength and firmness in the ultimate fibres a matter 
of less importance, free stuff is desirable, yet the 
beater-man should try to temper the stuff so as to 
preserve as far as possible the original strength and 
elasticity of the fibres. 

The rawness referred to is also very noticeable in 
papers made from esparto, to which have been added 
I or 2 per cent, of strong rags. In the beating of such 
stuff, especially if the paper be thin, the idea that 
length means strength is often so much developed that 
when the pulp reaches the strainer a large proportion 
of the rag stuff refuses to go through. 

A little consideration of the subject will show that 
the behaviour of the fibres under the influence of the 
shake, as they are carried along the wire, has a great 
deal to do with whether the sheet be strong or the 
reverse. If a sheet of thin paper be placed under the 
microscope, it will at once be seen that there exist 
between the fibres spaces which seem to be filled with 
some transparent non-fibrous material. 

The longer the fibres the more apparent do the spaces 
become, and, however minute, their presence must tend 
to weaken the sheet. When the fibres are a shade 
finer, the finest of them will, under the influence of the 
shake, settle down into these spaces, thus making the 
sheet more closely felted. 

This is the reason that, when using broke from the 



54 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

edgerunner, so large a proportion of the loading is 
carried in comparison with the amount retained when 
no broke is used. Edgerunner broke is generally 
reduced to such a state of fineness consequent on its 
having been under the action of the roll so often that 
it floats on the surface when on the wire ; and in 
addition to the shake, the suction of the pumps tends 
to draw the very fine fibres which compose it into 
the spaces referred to. 

In filling up these spaces, not only do the fine fibres 
greatly assist in making a close and evenly felted sheet, 
but by their presence they also prevent the loading 
materials from passing through the meshes of the wire 
as they would otherwise be very liable to do. 

It is in the making of such papers as banks and 
loans that the ill effects of keeping the stuff too long 
become most apparent ; and this is especially the case 
if the strainer plates used for the ordinary fine stuff are 
expected to take through the long rag stuff equally 
well. 

The rubbing of the plates which is essential in such 
circumstances, in order to keep them from clogging up 
altogether, has the effect of completely spoiling what 
would under other conditions be a clean, strong sheet, 
by peppering it with dirt and knots. Only those who 
have had the working of such stuff can fully appreciate 
the improvement which a finer engine will make in 
regard to the appearance and strength of the sheet. 

It will be more mellow, strong, and clean, and not 



FREE AND SOFT STUFF. 55 

least of the advantages derived will be the giving of 
more time to the machine-man to run steady weight, 
unhampered by the flooding and thinning which are 
unavoidable in such a case. 

In preparing stuff for thick papers, such as chromo 
and litho printing, the roll must be put down from 
the "first, that the stuff may be fine and free, and so 
part with the water easily and give a close, evenly 
felted sheet. To insure that the stuff will not be too 
soft, it should not run more than three or three-and- 
a-half hours in the beater. 

Stock intended for thin, strong papers must be 
drawn out and milled in the washer for at least six 
hours, and in the beater for ten or twelve hours. 
Blunt plates and rolls are necessary for the milling 
of such stuff, as a sharp plate or roll would cut 
it up too much, and, making it free, prevent it from 
softening properly. 

In preparing long greasy stuff, intermediate beaters 
possess this advantage : that by having blunt plates 
and rolls in the first engine, the stuff is milled in such 
a way as to render the fibres long and flexible, and 
capable of imparting a soft, silky feel to the papers 
made from them ; while in the second engine they can 
be reduced to the required length when they are in 
such a condition owing to the first treatment that the 
cutting action of the sharper tackle will not impair 
their strength. 

Several engines having the same end in view are used 



56 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

in American paper-mills ; and one of these beaters, or 
" perfecting engines," as they are termed, is becoming 
pretty well known to paper-makers in this country 
under the name of Marshall's perfecting engine. The 
author was running the machine to which it was 
attached when first tried in the mill where he served 
his apprenticeship, and had therefore a good oppor- 
tunity of judging its merits. 

The engine consists of a conical cylinder, the inside 
of which is fitted with steel bars in much the same 
manner as the bed-plate of the beating engine. 
Inside this cylinder a conical roll, also fitted with steel 
knives, revolves at a high speed, and as the stuff 
passes between the roll and the bars on the inside 
of the cylinder, it may be reduced to any degree of 
fineness. On reaching the end of the shell the stuff 
is made to pass between a revolving and a stationary 
disc, both of which are fitted with knives. 

The action of this disc or brush, as it is called, 
serves to rub out all knots and chips in much the 
same way as does the rubbing of the roll in the 
ordinary beater. This beater possesses all the advan- 
tages of the intermediate system, while requiring much 
less space and driving power compared with it. 

In the preliminary treatment necessary in the ordi- 
nary beater, before passing the stuff through the 
perfecting engine, the roll should be let down to a 
little more than a rub — just sufficient to mill the stuff 
is all that is required. When emptying to the chest, 



MARSHALL'S PERFECTING ENGINE, 57 

from which the perfecting engine is supplied, much 
less water must be put down than is usual when 
emptying to the machine chests; the reason for this 
being that the thicker the stuff is in its passage through 
the engine the better does it accomplish its work. 

As the pulp after passing through the engine flows 
into "the machine chests in a continuous stream, the 
weight is more constant ; and when it does alter one 
way or another it does so very gradually, thus insuring 
that the machine-man will notice and correct it before 
it can have much effect on the sheet. If the pulp 
contains a large proportion of grass, it should be 
diluted by running in a stream of water as it leaves 
the perfecting engine, and thus prevented from running 
into knots in the chest. 

When the stock consists of materials which are not 
fitted to bear the same beating strain, it is better to 
beat them in separate engines. Of course it is not 
always convenient to do this, especially when the pro- 
portion of strong or weak stock is small. To treat 
such a small proportion separately would keep back 
the other engines too long, in addition to changing 
the proportions in the finished sheet. 

In order to reduce good Spanish grass to fine stuff, 
it requires a firmer treatment with the roll than most 
of the rags which are mixed with it would get if treated 
in a separate engine, and this should be taken into 
account when selecting the rags to be used along with 
it. When the stock consists wholly or in large pro- 



5 8 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

portion of chemical wood, the engines must not be 
heavily loaded nor allowed to run long in the mill, as 
the wood is reduced very easily and soon becomes 
greasy. 

For medium weights of all wood-papers three hours 
is quite sufficient, and for the lightest weights eight 
hours. When it is especially desired that the paper 
should not crack when folded the time may be ex- 
tended to six hours ; but in that case the machine will 
have to go slower in order to allow of the water being 
taken out. Some wood pulps, however, are much 
more difficult to soften than others, and even after 
milling for a considerable length of time still tend to 
be free. This is in all probability due to the treatment 
in boiling or bleaching, or perhaps in both, having 
been too drastic, with the result that the natural 
elasticity of the fibres has been impaired. 

When making unsized papers it will be noticed that 
the sheet tears much better than a sized sheet from 
fibres of a similar fineness will do. This affords con- 
clusive evidence that, within certain limits, it is the 
flexibility and softness of the fibres, more than their 
length, that give tearing strain to a sheet. 

The unsized fibres are not coated with the resinate 
of alumina used to size with, and therefore retain their 
natural elasticity and tensile strength. When under 
the action of the shake the unsized fibres are more 
closely felted than would be possible were they 
stiffened by the size-coating, and this is more notice- 



CONSTRUCTION OF BEATER. 59 

able if the sheet be torn across the wire instead of 
down its length. 

When a sheet of paper is torn the fibres are not 
broken, they are simply pulled asunder, and it is for 
this reason that it always "skins" better when torn 
down the wire than across its length. Stuff for 
blotting-papers must be cut up as quickly as possible 
in the beater, and run not longer than an hour and 
a half in the mill. The beater must be light loaded, 
and the stuff kept constantly travelling, otherwise it 
will not have a uniform absorbing-power. 

Soft cotton rags are generally the stock from which 
blottings are prepared. Manilla hemp, owing to its 
soft, lustrous nature, and the width of the central canal, 
should, with proper treatment, be possessed of good 
absorbing qualities. 

Whatever be the shape or size of a beater, it must 
be so constructed that no stuff will lodge in any part 
of it, and for all-round work it must have a roll heavy 
enough to thoroughly soften the pulp and keep it in 
constant motion. If a beater of large capacity is 
desired, Forbes's patent double-roll beater possesses 
all the requirements, with the exception that the rolls 
are not heavy enough ; but with heavier rolls, and the 
speed of the lifter no faster than is necessary to ensure 
good travelling, the pulp produced will be of a very 
uniform character. 

It is the practice in some mills to wash the inside 
of the beating engines with soda ash, and even caustic 



60 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

lye, when changing colours, with the result that the 
smooth skin, which coats the sides, is rendered quite 
rough. This roughness retards the passage of the 
pulp in a way that is almost incredible to those who 
have not witnessed its effects. Not only does such 
washing interfere with the travelling, but it is the 
worst thing possible for causing rust spots to appear 
in the paper. 

Under none but the most exceptional circumstances 
should the rolls or sides of the beaters be subjected 
to any washing or scraping which will tend to break 
up the enamel-like surface which, if let alone, the 
continual contact with the moving stuff, and the 
chemicals contained in it, will impart to them. Under 
the ordinary conditions of working, beater-rolls should 
run from eighteen to twenty months after filling, and 
bed-plates from ten to twelve weeks. 

Should the plates be worked for a longer period 
than that, the roll has to be put so firmly down, in 
order to make fine stuff, that the driving power is 
taxed to the uttermost, and, in addition, the stuff, from 
having to be kept a much longer time in the engine 
before it can be made fine, is very liable to become 
too soft. 

As a result of the increased demand for the cheaper 
grades of paper, consisting wholly or in large part 
of wood pulp, the tendency in beater construction has 
been towards the production of beaters of larger 
capacity ; and no doubt, when it is possible to arrange 



HIBBERT BEATER. 6 1 

for long runs on one grade of paper, these large 
engines possess several distinct advantages. 

The colouring of a larger body of pulp at one time 
tends to regularity and the prevention of shades, while 
the pulp is much less apt to become too greasy, owing 
to the fact that it has much further to travel between 
each" contact with roll and plate. The necessity for 
the production of free stuff which will allow of quick 
driving and a close even sheet has led several paper- 
making engineers to design beaters in which the roll 
is placed so as to be quite clear of the pulp, the latter 
being supplied in some instances by means of a screw, 
and in others by a circulating pump. Perhaps the 
most popular of these new types is that known as 
the " Hibbert " beater, which also combines the beating 
and refining, and has been largely adopted in mills 
making long runs on wood pulp papers. 

It must not, however, be assumed that, because for 
certain grades of wood pulp or esparto papers the 
newer type of beating engines offer advantages, the 
Hollander type has been rendered obsolete. The fact is 
that the tendency to specialise is becoming much more 
noticeable, with the result that makers, having proved 
that a certain type of beater suits the special papers 
to which they are turning their attention, are installing 
the particular beater when opportunity offers. 

The problem which confronts the paper-maker when 
called on to decide on the type of beater to adopt 
must depend for its solution on the special require- 



62 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

ments of the paper he desires to produce, and the 
power at his disposal for beating purposes, together 
with the physical properties of the raw materials to be 
employed. In order to produce from, say, esparto, a 
pulp which would be capable of settling down quickly 
on the machine wire, and making, under the influence 
of a medium shake, a close, mellow paper — which, in 
view of economical production, must be turned out at a 
quick speed — the roll and bed-plate bars would require 
to be somewhat sharp, in order to shorten the fibres 
sufficiently without rendering them so greasy as to 
retain the water too long on the wire. The circulation 
must also be well maintained, and for the preparation 
of such papers the new type of beater offers distinct 
advantages, as, with the independent circulation, it is 
possible to arrest the flow of the pulp when it is fully 
prepared, and thus avoid getting it too greasy. 

Most practical paper-makers will be ready to admit, 
however, that a beater which is eminently fitted for 
the production of fine, free stuff, will not of necessity 
produce as good results, even under skilful manipula- 
tion, when working on, say, chemical wood pulp for 
the production of a paper such as the thin Kraft 
papers, in which the indispensable requirements are 
toughness and flexibility, together with the mellow 
appearance characteristic of well-milled greasy stuffs 
from the Hollander type. 

Notwithstanding the degree of nicety with which 
the roll can be raised or lowered, and the means 



LIGHT AND HEAVY BEATER ROLLS. 63 

thus at hand for regulating the superficial pressure 
exerted on the ultimate fibres as they pass between 
the bars of the roll and the bed-plate, the pulp produced 
with sharp bars is invariably weaker, and (though the' 
ultimate fibres may be a fair length) lacks the greasy 
well-milled feel which is indispensable for the pro- 
duction of thin, tough papers. This inferiority is all 
the more noticeable should the stock consist of strong 
rags and wood pulp, as the already disintegrated wood 
fibres are too much cut up by the treatment necessary 
to open out the fibre bundles of the rags. It is well 
known that a light beater roll will draw out the fibres 
much better than a heavy one, but that, in order to 
produce equal results in the reduction of the fibres, 
the light roll will take longer time. The whole 
question really lies in the superficial pressure exerted 
by the roll,, and with sharp bars the pressure is 
increased in proportion as the area of the bearing 
and cutting surface is reduced. 

For the production of the higher grades of writing 
and printing papers, in which the appearance is so 
important a factor, the best results will be obtained 
with bars about one-sixteenth of an inch on the face. 
This will be found to hold good whether the half-stuff 
consists of rags, esparto, or wood ; and as the demand 
for cheap, smart-looking papers seems to become more 
pronounced, such conditions are likely to govern the 
type of whatever innovations may appear in beater 
construction. It will be generally admitted that for 



64 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

good all-round work the medium size of beating engine, 
carrying from 500 to 700 lbs. of stuff, is undoubtedly 
the best, although, as mentioned above, beaters of 
larger capacity possess certain advantages for long 
runs on one quality of pulp. 

While no hard-and-fast rule as to the conditions 
of the bars can with any safety be promulgated, it 
will be of material assistance to paper-makers who 
wish to determine the most suitable conditions of roll 
and bed-plate bars, for the treatment of any particular 
half-stuff, if they will set to work and find out the 
exact relationship which exists between the state of 
the bars and the amount of superficial pressure exerted 
between them when in contact with the stuff. To state 
the matter crudely, the smaller the area of the points of 
contact, the greater the pressure exerted on the fibres, 
and vice versa. 

With a view to testing the difference produced on 
wood pulp papers by beating the fibres under a low 
superficial pressure, the writer has substituted a solid 
block of granite for the usual bed-plate of steel bars, 
with excellent results. The experiment was first tried 
with a beater of the usual Hollander type, carrying 
from 450 to 500 lbs. of pulp, having a roll 42 inches 
on the face, with 72 bars drawn out to one-eighth of an 
inch on the face. The plate contained 26 bars, also 
one-eighth of an inch wide on the face. The granite 
block gave a bearing surface of 42 inches by 8 inches, 
and was hollowed out to suit the sweep of the roll, 



GRANITE AS BED- PLATE. 65 

with the result that the ultimate fibres were drawn 
out, as they were swept across the granite face by 
the action of the roll bars. 

By substituting the solid block the superficial 
pressure is thus reduced to about one-third, while the 
number of cuts per revolution of the roll is now 72, 
as against 1872 with the steel plate. 

The advantage gained in beating half-stuff, which 
already contains a sufficient number of short fibres 
to impart the desired firmness to the finished sheet, 
without the necessity of further shortening them, is 
very considerable. After a trial extending over a 
period of eighteen months, the net results of preparing 
stock, which is wanted long and tough, under the 
lower superficial pressure, and with the cutting power 
so much reduced, showed an increase of 30 per cent, 
in the strength and firmness of the papers produced, 
together with a very considerable increase in the turn 
out, due to being able to get the stuff out in a shorter 
time. Originally intended to draw out sulphite wood 
without cutting it, the method was tried experimentally 
on strong rag stuff, and with such good results that 
•it was adopted for beating fibrous materials, such as 
strong cotton and linen rags, hemp, and jute. The 
increase of strength is most noticeable when the furnish 
consists of a mixture of fibres which present a variety 
of characteristics as to length and resistance to the 
knives, as the weaker fibres are not rendered too 
short before the stronger ones are sufficiently drawn 

5 



66 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

out. This increase in the strength of the finished sheet 
was so marked in one instance, that when the machine 
started up with the stuff prepared under the new con- 
ditions the paper was considered so much above the 
usual quality that an additional quantity of loading 
was added to bring it to the desired standard. 

Not the least advantage in working the solid block is 
that the stuff from strong materials can be cleared much 
better; and though the individual fibres retain their 
original length in a much larger degree, this freedom 
from knots has the result of making them pass 
through the screens much more readily than fibres 
which have been cut short without being sufficiently 
drawn out and set free from the fibre bundles, as is 
often the case when long stuff is prepared with even 
moderately sharp tackle. When the block is made to 
fit the "den" exactly, it becomes a very simple matter 
to substitute a block for a plate, or vice versa, should 
the particular requirements of the paper it is desirable 
to produce render it advisable. Should the blocks 
become worn smooth, as they do in time, it is well 
to have them picked on the surface, as in this way 
they retain the stuff better, and the beating can be 
accomplished in shorter time. 

When tried against steel plates, the writer found 
that with rough blocks a better quality of paper could 
be produced in six hours than could be obtained in 
eight hours from steel plates. 



CHAPTER VII. 

LOADING.— STARCH.— COLOURING MA TTER. 

Loading. — It is not an uncommon idea with a great 
many people that, in adding loading materials to the 
paper in the process of manufacture, the paper-maker 
is actuated by a motive akin to that which prompts 
the dairyman to water the milk. 

Though the percentage of loading in some papers 
would seem to justify such an opinion, yet, as a rule, 
the loading is added with a distinct view to making the 
paper more suitable for the particular purpose to which 
it is applied. In the case of printing papers especially, 
the addition of 15 or 16 per cent, of loading, by 
making them more absorbent, enables them to print 
much better, and lessens in a considerable degree the 
friction when in contact with the types. 

The first thing that the paper-maker must take into 
consideration when selecting a loading material is that 
its chemical nature is such that when in contact with 
the free acids or chlorine compounds, liable to be 

present in the pulp, no chemical or physical change 

67 



68 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

will result. When that has been satisfactorily settled, 
the next requirement to be looked to is freedom from 
sand or coarse particles, which would tend to impair 
the value of the paper ; and lastly, the colour should 
be bright enough to blend with the shades of paper 
for which it is intended. 

Kaolin, or china clay, as it is usually termed, is 
the loading usually employed in the making of news, 
printings, and the lower qualities of writings. The 
clay is made into a thin cream with water, generally 
in a chest fitted with a revolving agitator, so that 
when furnished to the engine it will always be of 
the same consistency. Some paper-makers mix it 
with resin size, the idea being that in this way it is 
more firmly held by the fibres, and less liable to 
pass through the meshes of the machine wire. 

Before running into the beater it should be carefully 
strained, so that any sand or unground particles may 
be kept back. The sieves used for this purpose should 
be very fine, as even the best grades of clay contain 
a considerable proportion of extraneous matter. 

China clay, in addition to enabling the paper loaded 
with it to take up the printing ink more rapidly, helps 
materially in bringing up the surface when calendering, 
though from its power of absorbing moisture the high 
finish thus obtained is liable to go back if exposed 
in a damp atmosphere. Should an excessive amount 
be added, or if it has been imperfectly strained, 
the pressure of the calender rolls will have the effect 



CHINA CLAY.— PEARL HARDENING. 69 

of squeezing the coarser particles out and leaving 
the sheet pierced with innumerable very minute 
holes. 

The sizing and feel of clay-loaded papers are never 
so good as with papers loaded with such materials as 
pearl hardening or barium sulphate, nor do they bulk 
so well. Heavy chromo and plate papers often contain 
as much as 35 to 40 per cent, of clay; and though 
such a large amount is very apt to cause " dusting " 
in cutting and printing, the impression obtained is 
much more clear, and the colours are absorbed more 
rapidly, than would be possible with a smaller pro- 
portion of loading. 

For the better qualities of writing papers, the 
materials used are calcium sulphate, sulphate of barium, 
barium chloride, and agalite. 

Calcium sulphate — or pearl hardening, as it is usually 
named — is generally clean enough to be added to the 
engine without straining, and is added in the dry state, 
and owing to its firmer nature the sizing is much less 
impaired than with clay. In addition to its hardening 
properties, it imparts a purity of shade to the paper, 
which makes it very valuable as a loading for the 
finer qualities of writings, in which look is of the first 
importance. This brilliancy is also possessed by 
barium sulphate, but as it is not usually so free from 
dirt it is not so suitable for high-class papers. 

Barium sulphate, owing to its high specific gravity, 
is not carried so well by the stuff, and when diluted 



7o 



PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 



to the consistency usual in the sandtrap, a large pro- 
portion settles out and adheres to the bottom of the 
spouts. This, together with the amount which passes 
through the wire and is deposited on the bottom of 
the save-all, reduces the percentage carried to about 
30 per cent, of the amount actually added. It should 
be mixed with water and strained before being put into 
the engine, otherwise a large amount of dirt will be 
carried into the paper. 

A paper, weighing equal to about 40lbs. demy, when 
loaded with clay to show 19 to 20 per cent, on 
burning, will carry as much as 85 per cent, of that 
added to the beater. Should such a paper consist of 
a large proportion of edgerunner broke, the amount 
carried will in some cases be as much as 90 to 95 
per cent. 

It must be borne in mind, however, that when 
edgerunner broke is used, the amount added to the 
engine will contain as much as 15 to 18 per 
cent, of clay firmly fixed on the fibres by the 
previous sizing and drying, so that the percentage 
of that added as clay, which is carried in the paper, 
is not so high as it at first appears. Heavy chromo 
papers burning 35 to 40 per cent, of clay will not 
carry more than 50 per cent, of the amount 
added. 

This is owing to the beating of the stuff, which is 
cut up very quickly and thus rendered very free, 
coupled with the fact that the machine wire in 



A GA LITE. —STARCH. 7 1 

travelling so slowly gives more time for the loading 
to be shaken through the meshes. The percentage 
of barium sulphate carried will seldom exceed 35 
per cent., while pearl hardening will usually turn 
out 50 per cent. It is claimed that by using 
chloride of barium, and adding a slight excess of 
alum or alumina, sulphate of barium will be pre- 
cipitated on the fibres in such a way as to enable 
them to retain it much better, and so increase the 
turn out. 

Agalite is the only loading material apart from 
ground wood which can claim to be more than a 
loading, on account of its fibrous nature. 

Agalite is prepared from asbestos, and retains the 
fibrous nature of that substance. Owing to this 
the loss in passing over the wire is much less, and 
indeed it is claimed that in ordinary circumstances 
as much as 99 per cent, is actually carried. By 
using agalite the surface is much improved, owing 
to its soapy nature, and the sizing is not impaired 
as with china clay. 

It has the drawback, however, of making the paper 
loaded with it very greasy, owing to the size having 
become fixed in the pores, and retaining the water 
very obstinately. 

Starch. — This is applied to papers in the process 
of manufacture for the same reason as it is used by 
the housewife in preparing collars and cuffs for ironing 



72 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

and glazing — namely, for hardening, and enabling 
them to resist the effects of moisture, as well as 
for imparting a high polish in the subsequent glazing 
process. 

In some mills it is the custom to boil the starch 
with the resinate of soda solution before adding it 
to the pulp, as in this way a larger percentage is 
retained by the paper. When applied in this way, 
the paper, though taking on quite as good a surface, 
has not the firmness and rattle obtained when the 
starch is added to the pulp in the dry state, 
or merely dissolved in cold water, that the impurities 
liable to be contained in it may be kept back by 
putting it through a fine wire-cloth sieve. 

Colouring Matter. — Notwithstanding the purity of 
colour that can be obtained by a judicious use of the 
bleaching solution, very few even of the finest qualities 
of white papers are made a " self-colour." The colours 
used for brightening or enriching the majority of 
cream coloured papers are ultramarine and carnation. 
In order to ensure uniformity of shade, a certain 
standard should be fixed for each of these colours; 
and thus, by comparison, the colouring power of 
new brands which may from time to time be brought 
in can be at once determined. The standard sample 
may either be prepared by mixing a known quantity 
of the colour, decided upon as the standard, with a 
measured quantity of fine starch or pearl hardening ; 



ULTRAMARINE. 73 

or by dissolving a small portion in hot water, and 
saturating narrow strips of white blotting paper 
with the resulting colour. 

By treating equal weights of the new samples in 
exactly the same manner, taking care always to 
preserve the same proportions when dissolving, an 
accurate idea of the relative colouring power can at 
once be obtained, and a short calculation, based on 
the amount of pulp coloured by the standard, will 
enable the papermaker to determine whether the 
colouring power of the new sample is in proportion 
to its cost. 

The behaviour of ultramarine — or, to use the best- 
known name, blue — with the alum solution used in 
the mill, should also be ascertained, by allowing a drop 
to remain in contact with a diluted solution of alum 
or sulphate of alumina for a sufficient length of time 
to show whether the colour would be affected during 
the contact necessary in the beaters, machine chests, 
and sizing tub. 

Blue should always be dissolved in hot water and 
carefully strained before adding to the pulp, so that 
no insoluble particles may be fixed on the fibres, 
and appear as blue specks on the under side of the 
sheet. To ensure that the colour will be uniformly 
distributed, when a considerable quantity is being 
used, half of the amount necessary should be put in 
just after furnishing, so that it may be thoroughly 
mixed, while the remaining half should be added as 



74 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING, 

soon as it has been ascertained whether any altera- 
tion is to be made. 

Pulp which has been left standing in the machine 
chests for any length of time will generally be found to 
have gone back in the colour when blue is the colour- 
ing matter used. This fading will be greater in pro- 
portion to the amount of acid contained in the pulp, the 
exposure to light to which it has been subjected, and 
the amount of iron impurities contained in the water or 
communicated from the rolls and sides of the beaters. 

In some mills the amount added, in order to counter- 
act this fading, when the pulp has been standing from 
Saturday night until Monday morning, is equal to a 
third of the colour used to give the desired shade, 
while in others a sixth is found to be sufficient. When 
making papers coloured with smalts, which is unacted 
on by acids, the fading is very slight, about a half- 
pound for every twelve pounds left in the chest being 
quite sufficient. With inferior grades of smalts the 
liability to fading is, however, much greater. 

When making delicate colours the alum should be 
kept out until just before drawing the valve, so that 
the contact with the colour may be as limited as 
possible. A very suitable way in which to use coch- 
ineal is to dissolve it in a dilute solution of ammonia, 
to which a little cream of tartar has been added. The 
cochineal paste is sometimes dissolved, with the cream 
of tartar, in the water before the ammonia is added. 
Used in this way there is no danger that the colour 



ANILINE COLOURS. 75 

will spot the underside of the paper, as is often the 
case when the dry carnation powder is used. 

Not unfrequently when making toned papers the 
iron used to give the shade makes the resulting colour 
too bright. In such a case a glass or two of bark 
liquor added to the engine or the chests will deaden 
the colour to the desired shade. 

When making greens, which colours are usually pro- 
duced by combination of bichromate of potash and 
nitrate of lead with Paris blue — or paste blue, as it is 
often termed — the two first mentioned should always 
be put into the engine and allowed to become mixed 
with the pulp before the blue is added, and alum 
should be kept out until just before drawing the valve. 
Before adding the nitrate of lead to the engine care 
should be taken that there are no traces of chlorine 
compounds in the pulp, as the presence of such would 
cause the yellow colour produced on the addition of 
the bichromate to take on a dull orange tint. 

Aniline Colours. — Though the advantages attending 
the use of the coal-tar derivatives or aniline dyes — to 
give them their most familiar name — have been known 
for many years, it is only within a comparatively recent 
period that these dyes have been used for colouring 
any but the cheaper grades of paper. Thanks, how- 
ever, to the painstaking and elaborate investigations 
of the German chemists, applied under " up-to-date " 
commercial conditions, these coal-tar colours have been 



76 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

produced in an almost endless series of shades, many 
of which can compare favourably with the older forms 
of colouring matter as to stability, while for depth 
and variety of shade they far surpass them. 

Notwithstanding that from a chemical point of view 
the various colours are divided into distinctive groups, 
named respectively acid and basic, their action is not 
complicated to any extent. As a rule, when using 
the comparatively small quantities necessary for tinting 
purposes, it will be found that both the so-called acid 
and basic colours will give reliable and regular results 
when fixed with any of the alum compounds in general 
use ; and this fact alone is sufficient to ensure the 
adoption of these aniline dyes in most mills. It is 
when using the larger quantities necessary to produce 
the deeper shades that regard has to be given to the 
reaction peculiar to each derivative, inasmuch as a 
considerable advantage, in point both of economy and 
of regularity, is gained by taking advantage of these 
distinctive properties. Thus, when making a deep 
scarlet, better results are ensured if the pulp be first 
dyed with a basic colour such as paper scarlet, and 
subsequently, after allowing time for complete mixing, 
an acid colour such as cotton scarlet be added. By 
proceeding thus, the acid colour forms a chemical 
combination with the basic dye, with the result that 
a precipitate is formed on the fibres, ensuring a fast 
colour and more complete exhaustion, with the atten- 
dant advantages of a much clearer backwater. 



ACID AND BASIC COLOURS. TJ 

Of the acid group, cotton scarlet is perhaps the 
best known, and being largely used for the production 
of deep shades, the question of complete exhaustion 
and a clear backwater is of the first importance, in 
view of the avoidance of pollution difficulties. Not- 
withstanding that a great many experiments have 
been made in order to determine the conditions most 
suitable for ensuring a clear backwater when using 
large quantities of cotton scarlet, the fact remains that 
it is practically impossible to do so, even when the 
utmost precautions are taken to ensure the formation 
of a like precipitate on the fibres. It will be found, 
however, that by observing certain precautions a great 
degree of exhaustion may be obtained ; and one of 
the most important points is to allow sufficient time 
for complete mixing of the pulp and the dye before 
adding the sizing solution, care being taken to add 
about twice the usual amount of sizing. 

Fresh dyes, it will be found, are much more liable to 
give rise to frothing than if the lids be removed for 
some time. When using paraffine for froth prevention, 
care must be taken to avoid an excess, as otherwise 
small specks of tarry matter will appear in the sheet. 

As a rule the acid colours will be found to have 
more resistance to light than the basic colours. 

Amamine may be taken as typical of the basic 
group, and gives excellent results, either used alone 
or in conjunction with other colours. When using 
colours belonging to the eosine group, great care must 



78 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

be taken to maintain the temperature of the drying 
cylinders as uniform as possible, as otherwise a con- 
siderable variation of shade will result. This variation 
is most noticeable when making delicate shades on 
the single-cylinder machine. 

Dyeing to Shade. — As a general rule, the dyeing 
of paper pulp is conducted in a somewhat haphazard 
manner, with the result that, while in the greater 
number of instances the methods adopted by the 
papermaker work out fairly well, it not infrequently 
happens that much time is lost and paper spoiled 
through the colours not being right in shade ; especially 
should the shade be a new one for that particular 
mill. Given even an elementary knowledge of the 
nature and properties of the dyes to be used, there 
is no reason why any great degree of uncertainty 
should exist as to how the colour will work on the 
machine, provided that the dyeing be carried out 
systematically and intelligently. There are two methods 
by which the "striking" of colours may be carried out 
much more expeditiously, and with (what is even of 
greater importance) more certainty, than is possible 
under the rule of thumb generally adopted. 

To carry out the first of these methods, the apparatus 
necessary consists of a chemical balance, a graduated 
burette, three or four beakers, and about half a dozen 
stoppered bottles. For the second method the balance 
is all that is absolutely indispensable, though the use 



DYEING TO SHADE. 79 

of a small mortar and pestle facilitates matters a great 
deal. In carrying out the first method, which is re- 
stricted to dyes as distinguished from pigments, a 
weighed quantity of each dye of which it is intended 
to make up a standard solution is dissolved in a known 
volume of water and labelled in the following manner, 
according to the proportions of water and dye used : 
thus, " ioo C.C. = i gramme " would be the label should 
io grammes be dissolved in one litre of water. In 
working out this method a certain number of cubic 
centimetres are added to a known weight of pulp — 
say sufficient to weigh io grammes when made into 
paper — and when the requisite dyes are added the 
pulp is diluted, and tried either in the hand mould 
or along the machine wire, when the percentage of 
each dye can be at once ascertained. In working 
out the second method, the dyes or pigments are 
weighed off and added to the experimental quantity 
of pulp in the dry state, a convenient scale being 
'Oi grammes of dye to io grammes of paper, being 
equal to one pound of dye to 1,000 pounds of paper. 
It is obvious that these experimental trials can be 
carried out before the time for furnishing the beaters, 
and so there is no unnecessary delay, in addition to 
securing a much more satisfactory start than is possible 
when the beaters have to be dyed up experimentally. 

Of the two methods the writer always uses the latter, 
which lends itself either to the use of dyes or pigments, 
and when carefully worked is most reliable. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

RESIN SIZE AND SIZING. 

Of all the materials used in the manufacture of paper, 
there is none about which there exists such diversity 
of opinion, both as to its preparation and subsequent 
action, as that of resin size. 

Dr. Wurster holds that the degree of sizing is pro- 
portional to the amount of free resin deposited on the 
fibres. Other experts, however, claim that the active 
sizing agent consists of the resinate of alumina, formed 
when the resin soap is decomposed by the alum ; while 
it is asserted by some that it is a mixture of both which 
constitutes the size coating. 

In support of the free resin theory, it is claimed that 
paper can be sized without the use of alum or alumina 
by making use of sulphuric acid to decompose the 
resinate of soda and liberate the resin, Though the 
majority of paper-makers hold the opinion that the 
resinate of alumina alone sizes the paper, nearly every 
mill has a different recipe for the preparation of the 
size. 

80 



RESIN SIZE. 8 1 

While the exact chemical composition of resin is 
still a matter of some obscurity, chemists and paper- 
making experts are generally agreed that two parts 
of crystal soda are required to unite with four parts 
of resin ; while, if good soda ash be used in place of 
the crystal form, one part will form a neutral resinate 
with four of the resin. 

The following recipe will give a reliable size of a 
light brown colour, which will be as near as possible 
a neutral resinate of soda : — Dissolve ninety-eight 
pounds of good soda ash in thirty-six gallons of 
boiling water, and then add four hundred and twenty 
pounds of powdered resin. 

The best form of boiler is a jacketed one, as by 
using it the increase of water, due to the condensation 
of the steam used to boil with, is avoided. The resin 
should be roughly powdered by the hand, as it is 
asserted that the finely divided resin, prepared by 
using a grinding mill, is very liable to form clots on 
being put into the hot soda solution. So long as any 
of the resin is undissolved, the carbonic acid, evolved 
as it enters into combination with the soda, will cause 
the solution to froth up, and, if not carefully watched, 
so as to check the steam in time, it will come right 
over the top of the boiler. 

To avoid this as much as possible, the temperature 
should be kept no higher than is necessary to dissolve 
the resin in a reasonable time. In addition to pre- 
venting the frothing, it is said that the carbonic acid, 



82 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

when not violently expelled, has the power of forming 
a bicarbonate with the uncombined soda, which tends 
to improve the sizing properties of the soap. 

When all the resin has united with the soda, the 
steam should be shut off, as further heating impairs 
the strength of the size. To test whether the resin 
has all gone into combination, a little of the size should 
be taken out and poured into a pailful of tepid water. 
If it is right it should dissolve at once, and on putting 
in the hand there will be no deposit of resin. If, 
however, the resin has not all gone into solution, the 
hairs on the back of the hand will be rendered quite 
sticky by the adhesion of the uncombined particles. 

If a further heating does not serve to combine the 
resin, it may be inferred that, probably owing to a 
variation in the strength of the soda, the amount used 
is insufficient, and more will require to be added until 
the. test shows that there is no more uncombined resin 
present. The soap should be run through a sieve 
before being put into the store tanks, that any in- 
soluble impurities may be removed. 

Size prepared in this way will not yield much lye 
when kept for a length of time, for this reason, that it 
does not contain much soda in excess. The lye which 
separates out contains the colouring matter of the 
resin and any soluble impurities that may have been 
introduced while boiling. This lye should be carefully 
skimmed off, and while most paper-makers make no 
further use of it, it is recommended by others to be 



WHITE SIZE. 83 

used in dissolving the next boiling, as by using it less 
soda is required. They further assert that the acid 
which constitutes the colouring matter tends to im- 
prove the value of the size. 

A size prepared with the proportions given above 
should yield about ninety-six gallons of undiluted soap, 
each gallon containing nearly five-and-a-half pounds 
of resinate of soda. To prepare the solution for the 
beating engine, eight gallons of this strong size should 
be diluted with eighty gallons of water, which will be 
equal to half-a-pound of resinate of soda per gallon 
as furnished to the engine. After having been brought 
to boiling point, the size thus diluted should be strained 
through flannel, laid over a fine sieve, before being 
run to the beater store tank. 

By using soda-ash and resin, in the proportion of 
one part of soda to eight parts of resin, a white size 
containing a considerable amount of free resin will be 
produced. A suitable way of making this white size 
is to boil forty pounds of soda-ash with two hundred 
and seventy pounds of resin in about sixty gallons of 
water, and when all the resin has been dissolved to 
add fifty pounds of finely powdered resin. When such 
a size is diluted for the engine, it should be of a bright 
white colour, owing to the amount of finely divided 
free resin which it contains. 

When in contact with the pulp, this resin becomes 
attached to the fibres in a purely mechanical way, and 
this, together with the tendency of unprecipitated resin 



84 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

to form resin spots in the paper, would lead one to 
conclude that, whatever the advocates of free resin 
sizing may think of it, the maker of fine grades will 
best forward his own interests by seeking to perfect 
the preparation of a neutral resinate of soda. Apart 
altogether from the composition of the sizing solution 
used, whether the paper be well sized or the reverse 
depends, to a great extent, on the mode of treatment 
in the beater. 

When the engines are heavily loaded with as much 
stuff as possible, the ultimate fibres do not come under 
the cutting action of the knives, owing to the body of 
stuff between the roll and the plate, and thus, though 
well hammered out, the original form and elasticity 
of the fibres are preserved. Stuff prepared in such 
a manner will size well for two reasons, which will 
be readily understood. 

When such stuff is carried down the machine wire 
it retains its water very obstinately, and thus the size 
coating is well felted among the fibres before the water 
is drawn out by the pumps. The loss of size with 
the backwater is therefore very small. The strength 
and flexibility of the fibres enable them to felt closely 
when coated with the resinate of alumina, and thus 
a strong, well-sized paper is produced, with the usual 
amount of alum and size. 

With light engines the body of stuff between the 
roll and the plate is much thinner, and thus the 
cutting action is more drastic. The result is that, 



SIZING.— CRYSTAL ALUM. 85 

in addition to being reduced in length, the fibres are 
burst open, and thus lose much of their felting power, 
at the same time being rendered very free. Free 
stuff parts with the water very easily, and thus much 
of the sizing is lost on the machine, while the 
weakness, consequent on the treatment of the fibres 
in the engine, is also a great drawback to making a 
firm, strong-sized sheet. 

To get the best results in sizing stuff prepared in 
light engines, the roll must be very carefully put 
down, or the very life will be knocked out of the 
fibres, and the stuff will froth and " bell " on the 
wire, in addition to being poorly sized. 

Until within the last few years potash alum was 
almost exclusively used in the sizing of superior 
papers, owing to the difficulty in obtaining sulphate 
of alumina from which free acid and iron impurities 
had been completely separated. 

Crystal alum consists of a double sulphate of 
alumina and potassium, united together with 24 parts 
of water, as the following formula will show : — 

A1 2 (S0 4 ) 3 K 2 S0 4 + 2 4 H 2 0. 

It contains only about 10*5 per cent, of sulphate of 
alumina, and is thus much more expensive than the 
sulphates of alumina. 

Sulphate of alumina is not a chemical compound 
of a definite composition, as the alumina varies 
between 2 and 3 per cent., though that purchased 



86 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

from reliable makers generally contains 15 or 16 
per cent. 

Owing to the improved methods of manufacture now 
adopted, the aluminium sulphates can be prepared in 
such a way as only to contain the slightest trace of free 
acid and iron ; indeed, in some of the best grades no 
trace can be found. Notwithstanding this, the crystal 
form is generally employed for the very best qualities. 

Sulphate of alumina is much more soluble than 
crystal alum, which requires 18 parts of water 
as against 2 parts required to dissolve I part of 
the alumina. 

The amount of alum (or alumina) required to 
decompose the resin soap will depend on the amount 
of resinate of soda to be acted on. A size which 
contains a large percentage of free resin, already 
precipitated by the degree of dilution to which it 
has been reduced, will require less than one in which 
the percentage of sodium resinate is greater. 

To ascertain the exact amount necessary to de- 
compose the size, about 50 c.c. should be placed in 
a glass flask, and the number of c.c. of alum 
necessary to convert all the resinate of soda into 
resinate of alumina run in from a graduated burette. 

In this way the correct proportions for the solutions 
employed in each particular mill can be arrived at. 
Most paper-makers add to the pulp a larger proportion 
of alum than is required to form the size coating. 

This excess has the effect of hardening the paper 



INFLUENCE OF WATER ON SIZING. 87 

and giving to it a better rattle, and also acts as a 
mordant in helping to fix the colour. 

If the water used in the mill contains magnesium 
or lime salts, or, in other words, is hard, a much 
larger quantity of alum will have to be employed 
to obtain a well-sized paper. 

When size is added to an engine furnished with 
hard water, it is decomposed as a flaky precipitate, 
owing to the action of the sulphates of lime and 
magnesia in forming resinate of lime and resinate of 
magnesia when brought into contact with the resinate 
of soda. If, however, sufficient alum be added to 
precipitate the lime and magnesium salts, before the 
addition of the size, this decomposition can be pre- 
vented, and the resinate of alumina formed as usual. 

The best plan is to add the size after the alum used 
to neutralise the lime and magnesium salts has been 
thoroughly mixed, and then to run in the amount 
required to combine with the resin. It is said that, 
in this way, the precipitate formed by the action of the 
alum on the salts, which are the cause of the hardness 
of the water, is not so liable to be decomposed by the 
excess of alum used, as the presence of the size pre- 
vents it from remaining in contact with the pulp in 
the free state, owing to the ease with which the 
resinate of alumina is formed. 

The exact amount necessary to precipitate the salts 
contained in the water can easily be determined by 
treating a small quantity of it with a solution of the 



88 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

alum used. The number of ex. required to give a 
precipitate can be seen from the markings on the 
burette, and thus the amount required for the gallons 
contained in the engine is simply a matter of pro- 
portion. 

Though the water supply, under ordinary circum- 
stances, may be sufficiently free from impurities, a 
sudden flood may change the channel and lay bare 
lime and magnesium compounds which, when carried 
into solution, will have a deleterious effect on the 
sizing. When the water contains carbonic acid the 
danger of this is much increased, as the acid dis- 
solves the lime as a carbonate, identical with the 
carbonate of lime formed by the action of the carbonic 
acid of the air in the lime left on the fibres by the 
bleaching solution. 

The extent to which the decomposition of the alum 
may be carried, owing to the presence of these salts, 
either in the water or in the pulp, will be easily seen 
from a glance at the following equation : — 

Al 2 + K 2 4 S0 4 + 24 H 2 + 2 CaC0 3 
54 + 78 + 128 + 256 + 80 + 24 + 96 = 

948 + 200 

2 CaS0 4 + Al 2 O s + K 2 S0 4 + 2 C0 2 + S0 3 + 24 H 2 0. 

It will thus be seen that should the water in the 
engine contain 1 lb. of carbonate of lime in solution, 
almost 5 lbs. of potash alum will be decomposed, and 
thus rendered ineffective for sizing purposes. 

A consideration of the above facts will show that, 



INFLUENCE OF HEAT ON SIZING. 89 

in order to size paper effectively and economically, 
the greatest vigilance must be exercised to see that 
the solutions used are kept as near as possible to the 
proportions which practical experiments, in each mill, 
have shown to be necessary. 

The contact with the heated cylinders on the 
machine, and the degree of heat to which the paper 
is subjected, have a great deal to do with rendering the 
size coating effective. This is probably due to the 
resinate of alumina, which has been precipitated on 
the fibres in the engine, becoming fused, and spread 
out, over, and into the interstices of the paper in such 
a way as to greatly increase the water-resisting power. 

That the sizing of paper, dried by the contact with 
the machine cylinders, is much better than a similar 
paper dried by hot air, may be tested by taking a 
piece from the web after it has passed the second 
press rolls, but before coming into contact with the 
heated cylinders, and drying it in a hot atmosphere. 
A piece should be taken from near the same place in 
the web, but after having been thoroughly dried by 
passing over the cylinders, and when the first sample 
is perfectly dry, the relative water-resisting power can 
easily be determined. 

Wetting with the tongue will show that the paper 
dried by hot air, without any contact with a heated 
body, is very poorly sized compared with the piece 
which passed over the cylinders. An accurate idea of 
the relative sizing can be obtained by placing a drop 



90 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

of a dilute alcoholic solution, coloured with a little 
carnation in order to render the effect more noticeable, 
on each of the samples, and observing the time which 
it takes to penetrate to the other side in each case. 

The initial cost of the hides and piths used in animal 
size-making, as well as the expense in preparation and 
application, has led to investigations with a view to 
finding a substitute which, while being less expensive 
to begin with, can be applied with satisfactory results 
to the pulp in the beating engine, thus doing away 
with the necessity for the expensive drying plant. The 
substance which has as yet shown the best results as 
a substitute for animal size is milk caseine. 

Caseine is the name given to that portion of milk 
which contains albumen. This albumen is analogous 
to that obtained from eggs and blood, and when a 
paper is coated with it it becomes capable of resisting 
the penetrating action of water just as a gelatine-sized 
paper does. When dry, milk caseine takes the form 
of a slightly yellow powder, which dissolves somewhat 
sparingly in water. 

The caseine for sizing is generally dissolved in a 
very dilute solution of ammonia, and in this state may 
be added to the pulp in the engine. When used in 
this way, however, there is a considerable loss owing 
to the finest of the albuminates precipitated by the 
alum passing away with the back-water on the machine. 

Dr. Muth, a strong advocate of caseine sizing, pre- 
pares the ammonium albumen, as the caseine is 



CASEINE SIZING. 9 1 

generally termed, with a solution of ordinary resin 
size prior to adding it to the pulp; and in this way 
he claims that the finest albuminates are fixed by the 
size, and thus prevented from being carried away with 
the machine back-water. 

For fine papers Dr. Muth recommends the use of 
4 to 5 parts of caseine to if parts of resin, and 3^ 
parts of sulphate of alumina to precipitate. These 
proportions can be changed according to the quality 
of the papers to be sized. 

Among the advantages claimed for milk sizing may 
be mentioned the greater elasticity of the fibres when 
compared with resin-sized papers — an increased yield 
owing to the precipitated albuminates being retained 
among the fibres. It is also claimed that, owing to the 
fatty substances present in the caseine, frothing on 
the machine is much reduced, and a larger percentage 
of loading carried with less injury to the tear, owing 
to the union of the caseine with the loading materials. 
This union is said to entirely prevent dusting when 
cutting and printing. 

Caseine may also be used for surface sizing, and 
when dried at a temperature of 266° Fahr. is said to 
become quite insoluble. When adding to the engine 
it should be allowed to become thoroughly mixed with 
the pulp before the alum, which must always be 
present in excess, is run into it. 

Though it can be readily understood that the gela- 
tinous precipitate formed on the fibres will resist the 



92 PRACTICAL PAPER MAKING. 

action of water much better than the resinate of 
alumina resulting from the resin size, it is difficult to 
understand how the coating thus formed will possess 
the same resisting power as that from the thick, strong 
gelatine which composes good animal size. In mills 
possessing no facilities for surface sizing, it might be 
used with advantage for the sizing of a better class of 
papers than the usual engine-sized qualities. 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE FOURDRINIER MACHINE AND ITS 
MANAGEMENT. 

In most mills considerable difficulty is experienced, 
in preventing the emptying of the beaters from dis- 
turbing the weight on the machine. As the beaters 
are usually filled to the lip, there is no room to allow 
of the water being sufficiently mixed with the pulp 
before drawing the valve ; and the result is that the 
thick stuff reaches the chests, and, in spite of the 
motion of the agitator, sinks to the bottom and is 
drawn into the pipe supplying the stuff cock-box before 
the water can be got down. 

When making a large, heavy sheet, a difference of 
5 or 6 lbs. in the ream may be caused by this thick 
stuff before the water can equalise it. Several devices 
have been tried in order to do away with this as much 
as possible. One of these consists in placing a metal 
float in a small box through which the stuff is led 
after it leaves the stuff-cock. 

The float is connected with a water-cock in such a 



94 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

way that when it rises, owing to the thickening of the 
stuff, the water is turned on, and continues to run 
until the pulp has been reduced by it to the usual 
thickness, when the float sinks down and closes the 
cock. 

In some mills a small chest capable of holding about 
ioo lbs. of pulp, and fitted with an agitator, is used as 
a stuff-cock box, but with no great advantage ; and 
when working out, the difference in pressure as the 
level of the stuff becomes lowered causes light weight, 
in spite of the attention of the machine-man in gra- 
dually putting up the stuff-cock. 

The best plan, though not always the most con- 
venient, is to place a chest, capable of holding the 
contents of the beater when diluted with water to the 
usual consistency, in such a position that it can empty 
into either of the machine chests. When the pulp and 
water have been thoroughly mixed, it can thus be 
allowed to flow into whichever chest it is desired to 
fill, and being always of the same thickness, the weight 
is not disturbed. 

When no such plan is adopted, the chests should 
be connected by a pipe fitted with a valve, so that 
either can be shut off when working out or changing, 
and the engines should be emptied into the chest, the 
cock of which is shut, and which communicates with 
the one out of which the pump is drawing the supply 
of stuff for the machine by means of the connection 
pipe. In this way the thick stuff has time to become 



STUFF CHESTS.— AGITATORS. 95 

more diluted before it finds its way through the con- 
necting pipe to the chest supplying the machine. 

If the chests are of iron, the inside should be 
covered with a coating of cement or some other non- 
corrosive substance. Chests coated in this way will 
keep clean longer, and when dirty be much easier 
washed, than if they were not coated. If the agitators 
revolve too slowly, a great deal of trouble will arise 
from bad weight, especially when making thick papers 
carrying a large percentage of loading. 

Agitators that revolve too quickly are, however, very 
apt to churn grass stuff into soft knots, which are with 
difficulty broken up by the strainer. A good speed 
for all round work is six or seven revolutions in the 
minute. When the stock used consists of rags, the 
speed may be quickened to eight or nine revolutions 
without doing any injury. 

It is most essential that the stuff pump be capable 
of pumping sufficient stuff to give a good overflow 
when the machine is working at its full breadth and 
speed, as a poor stuff pump is a great hindrance to 
the turning out of a good weight. To ensure that an 
ordinary pump will work easily, without any undue 
straining or jarring, the pipe from the chests should 
not be less than four inches in diameter. 

A new form of stuff pump, which has lately been 
introduced, works without the rubbers, which are such 
a nuisance in the older forms. The bottom ball works 
into the pipe, while the top one works into a cavity in 



9 6 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

the barrel, and against an iron saucer fitted to the top 
of the cover. The balls may be of metal ; but if so, 
they are apt to check the stuff and cause white chips 
to appear when making blue papers, so that rubber 
ones give most satisfaction. 

When the felts used to cover the sand-trap are 
nailed down, they should be carried up the sides also, 
so that no stuff may get in below, otherwise the stuff 
and dirt which will accumulate underneath will come 
away at times and cause much broke. If they are 
simply held down by leads, which is the better plan, 
a spare set should always be kept, so that they may 
be washed thoroughly and be ready to put down when 
the trap is washed out. 

It seems to be a fixed idea with the majority of 
paper-makers that, in order to get clean paper with a 
revolving strainer, it must be worked with the plates 
covered. It is very doubtful, however, if much or even 
any advantage is gained by this method of working, 
as the strain on the bellows is much harder, and, the 
suction being stronger, the dirt is more liable co be 
drawn through the slits than would be the case if the 
strainer were drawing a little air and thus working 
more easily. 

It is often remarked, in recommending this or that 
special style of strainer, that it can take through a 
larger amount of stuff in the hour than any other. 
Those who talk in this way seem to forget that the 
first requirement in a strainer is to keep back dirt, 



REVOLVING STRAINERS. 97 

and not merely to force through a large amount of 
stuff. A strainer which takes through a more than 
usually large amount of stuff in an hour will be almost 
certain to draw through a more than proportionally 
large amount of dirt, especially if the increased power 
be due to extra suction. 

It cannot escape notice that, when the flat strainers, 
which work by suction, fill up and get no air, a much 
larger amount of dirt will come through than when 
they are drawing air. The better plan would seem to 
be to work two strainers at an easy suction, rather 
than force dirt and stuff through one by shutting 
out the air and taxing the bellows to the utter- 
most. 

For straining fine stuff the plates should be of as 
narrow a cut as will take through the stuff without 
undue strain. The better qualities of writing papers 
are, as a rule, made from very fine stuff, and, conse- 
quently, will work easily through 2^ or 3 cut plates, 
but for banks and loans cut 4 or 4^ is necessary, 
while the long stuff prepared for cartridge papers 
should be strained through cut 5 or 5^. 

It is a mistake to work fine cut plates for long stuff, 
as the rubbing necessary carries more dirt and knots 
into the sheet than would get through if wider plates 
were used. Whatever may be the width of the plates, 
the greatest care should always be paid to having them 
fit properly down on the frame. If the plates fit badly, 
dirt and knots will get through in spite of all the care 

7 



9 8 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

given to the choice of the width of the cut, and the 
same applies to badly-fitting bolts. 

It often happens that when the original bolts become 
used up or lost the new ones supplied are a little 
longer, and do not fit up to the head ; or they may 
be a little smaller, through the holes having become 
worn and apt to become slack with the working of the 
bellows, especially if the plates be worked covered. 
If the bolts are too long the head will exert no 
pressure on the plate to keep it down on the frame, 
and, consequently, the stuff which works down the 
thread of the bolt will find its way under the plate and 
into the paper unstrained, and in all likelihood it will 
have become rolled into a small, hard knot in its 
passage down the thread. The same thing will occur 
if any of the bolts work slack, or if the plates do not 
fit close up to the frame. 

The knots which are caused by these defects are 
easily recognisable, as they are hard and rounded, and, 
unlike the knots which are in the stuff, they are raised 
up on the surface of the sheet. When the packing of 
the strainer ends has become worn, the knots made 
by the working of the stuff between the vat and the 
journal of the strainer are not so round, but more 
feathery shaped. 

It sometimes happens that long grass stuff becomes 
churned into soft knots in the chests, and these, 
especially if the plates are worn wide, are very liable 
to pass through the slits unbroken and appear in the 



ESPARTO KNOTS. 99 

sheet. If such stuff, instead of being run straight 
from the stuff cock into the sand trap, is led into the 
box which receives the water from the save-all, and 
drawn with the water through the pumps, a very large 
proportion of the knots will be broken up by contact 
with the sides of the pumps and pressure in passing 
the rubbers. 

If this arrangement is not a suitable one, another 
plan is to blow a jet of steam against the stuff in its 
passage to the strainer. This should never be done 
if it can possibly be dispensed with, as the steam heats 
the stuff and renders it very free, and, in addition, 
takes much of the firmness and rattle from the finished 
paper. 

If as much as possible of the backwater be run off, 
and spring water used to make up what is needed, 
the weakening action will be much lessened, as the 
cold water will counteract the heating which is the 
cause of the softening. Even when the amount of 
steam used is small, the backwater soon becomes 
heated by coming into contact with it so often. 

Though the small strainer often used as a breast-box 
does catch strings and blotches, yet if it runs more 
than twelve hours without cleaning, the blotches which 
will break away from it will cause a considerable 
amount of broke. 

This is especially the case when calenders are at- 
tached to the machine, as the blotches adhere to the 
rolls, and, in addition to the broke thus made, a 

LOFC. 



io o PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

great deal of extra labour is entailed in keeping them 
clean. A box small enough to secure a sufficient 
agitation by the rush of the stuff, and at the same 
time give a steady head of stuff behind the slice, will 
be found most suitable and will take up less space. 
For a machine on which there is much changing, and, 
indeed, for any machine, Holloway's patent deckles and 
knees are the best. 

With the older forms, even though the change may 
be merely an inch or two, the tacks have to be taken 
out and the apron rolled up when putting in the deckles, 
and vice versa when drawing out. On thick papers 
a great deal of trouble is often caused by the small 
knots or rolls of stuff which are formed when the 
apron refuses to lie properly. These rolls are often 
carried in by the action of the shake, and with difficulty 
removed with the cutting. 

These older forms have this advantage, that when 
making blues there is no white streak on the edge, 
such as is caused when the stuff works under the 
leather of the patent knees. When the amount of 
broke made when changing from a narrow to a broad 
deckle, or vice versa, is taken into account, the gain 
in cutting on blue papers seems somewhat insig- 
nificant. 

Should the apron have been rolled up for any length 
of time it often refuses to lie flat ; a hand-bowl or two 
of hot water will soften it, and make it lie quite evenly 
on to the wire. A thick strip of felt soaked in water 



HOLLOW AY'S PATENT DECKLES. ioi 

should always be laid along the edge when it has to 
stand dry for any length of time. The movable knees 
should be kept up an inch or so, that the apron may 
lie close into the deckle strap, and so make a good 
edge. 

By pressing down the knee against the strap it can 
be pushed out a little, and thus a little more cutting 
room may be gained. To make a good edge with 
the patent knees, the rubber pads must be fitted so 
as to come close up to the leather, and lie down on 
the apron in such a way as to prevent any stuff leak- 
ing out. 

The apron should extend just as far under the 
deckle pulley as is possible without coming in contact 
with the strap, should it have to be lowered a little 
with the deckle frame through the leather having be- 
come worn. The leather should fit easily, so that it 
may rise and fall with the motion of the tube-roll, 
and yet keep close enough down to prevent stuff 
getting under it, while not pressing so hard as to 
cause knots. 

In order to keep them working in this smooth 
way they should be taken out, and slides cleaned 
and rubbed with a little oil whenever the knees are 
off. Care must, however, be taken that all the surplus 
oil is washed off, otherwise it may get on the strap, 
and cause it to grip the pulleys hard, through pre- 
venting it from carrying enough water to make it 
slide over them easily. 



102 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

The level of stuff behind the slice must not be 
too high, or it will lap over the strap, and, working 
between the leather and strap, cause small knots to 
pass down on the edge. While the apron should 
lie slightly up to the wire, it must not be raised too 
much, or the depth of stuff as it leaves the breast-box 
will be apt to cause currents that will spoil the spread. 
Neglect of this, trivial as it appears, is often the 
reason why on some machines the spread gives so 
much more trouble than on others. The movable 
slice, by which the spread is regulated, must be 
worked to suit the different natures of the stuft. 
When the stuff is fine and carrying the water well, 
the slice should be kept well down, and this is 
especially necessary when making wove papers. To 
make a nice close wove sheet, the stuff must be 
prepared very fine and not soft. No more water 
should be worked than is necessary to close the sheet, 
and just sufficient shake to felt it evenly, while the 
first pump should be well closed. 

The effect of such working is especially noticeable 
on blue and yellow woves, as keeping the pump 
shut as much as possible, and working the water 
smoothly up with a gentle shake, has the effect of 
closing a blue sheet very nicely without drawing the 
colour from the underside; while the yellow has a 
clear close look, without the crushed appearance so 
often seen when much water is worked. 

For such papers in the ordinary weights the speed 



FREE STUFF. 



103 



should not exceed 70 to 75 feet a minute. When 
making laid more water will have to be put on, the 
slices raised a turn or so, the shake put up, and the 
pump opened. If the slice is not raised when much 
more water is put on, the depth of stuff behind it 
causes such a rush that the stuff is carried a good 
way towards the pump before it comes under the 
influence of the shake, and as the shake is most 
powerful just at the slices, it can less afford to be 
lost. If the laid dandy begins to " lift," there is too 
much water in front of it, and to cure it the pump 
must be opened, and more water and shake put on, 
if necessary, to close the sheet. 

Bringing up the water by means of the shake, and 
opening the pump a little, will generally have the 
effect of curing it. When the stuff is free it rushes 
out from beneath the slices very violently, and does 
not settle down quickly. Before settling down, such 
stuff rolls over on itself, just like a wave, after it 
has passed the slices, and the more free it becomes 
the farther will it travel before turning over and 
settling down. 

A careful look at very free stuff on the wire will 
show that, even when close to the pump, the finest 
of the fibres are still in a state of agitation. In 
addition to causing a rush, the slices when worked 
very low down catch the ultimate fibres, and, turning 
them on end, cause the sheet to have a broken un- 
felted appearance. This is more noticeable when 



IQ 4 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

working long stuff, and is the cause of the wavy, 
streaked appearance of thick coloured sheets. The 
thicker the sheet, the more shake is required to felt 
it, and when making thick cartridge or envelope 
papers, for which the stuff has been kept long, the 
slices will also have to be raised, so that enough 
water may be worked to assist in closing the long 
fibres. 

When long stuff is free, it will not stand much 
shaking, as the edges are apt to be thinned, owing 
to the ease with which the stuff is lashed back by 
coming in contact with the deckle straps. To remedy 
this the shake should be put back, more water put 
on, and the slices raised. 

It is sometimes necessary, owing to the bad con- 
struction of the breast-box or apron-board, to stick 
pieces of paper on the slices, so as to check the 
rush at some places, before an equal spread can be' 
obtained. This has the same effect on the portion 
of the sheet which comes under it as having the 
slices too low. 

It often happens, that after working out or being 
shut down for some time, the stuff, from being milled 
so long, will be too soft. Such stuff is the most 
difficult of all to work, as it lies so dead on the wire 
that it requires water and an energetic shake to 
spread it, while it parts with the water so badly that 
it is seldom enough can be put on to make a good 
sheet. 



FINE STUFF 105 

When stuff is both fine and soft, the paper will 
have a crushed appearance, especially if working 
a wove dandy, and will be very likely to stick to 
the press-roll. In such a case the shake should be 
put back as much as possible, consistent with closing 
the .sheet, the first pump opened under the same 
restrictions, and the air-cock on the second pump-box 
shut, so as to suck the paper as dry as possible. 

The guard-board should be put down, so as to 
prevent the passage of any water, and the weights 
on the couch-roll increased. This has the effect of 
drying the paper still further, and making it less 
likely to adhere to the press-roll. The press-roll 
should be put down as lightly as possible, and the 
wet felt tightened up so as to open the warp, and 
allow the water to be pressed out more readily. 

Pouring a little turpentine on the coucher or press- 
roll has the effect of taking away such greasiness 
for a minute or two, and enabling the web to be 
taken off the press-roll without any difficulty. When 
once down, and under the tension of the. draw to 
the second press, or cylinder, the liability to stick 
again is not so great, so that by the use of a little 
of this grease-destroying agent much broke may be 
saved. 

Considerable difference of opinion exists among 
paper-makers as to which is the most suitable length 
for the machine wire. The writer has had experience 
in making paper with 32 feet, 38 feet, 40 feet, and 



106 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

45 feet wires, and, from a careful study of the be- 
haviour of the different kinds of stuff on each, is 
of the opinion that for making the best qualities, 
where look is of the first importance, the best results 
will be obtained from a 38 to 40 feet wire. 

To get a passable sheet on a 45 or 50 ft. wire 
the stuff must be very free, otherwise it will be so 
inert before it reaches the dandy that the papers will 
have a dull, crushed look, especially when making 
woves. When the stuff is free enough to counteract 
this deadness, the number of tube-rolls in contact 
with the wire take away so much of the water that 
it is often difficult to obtain a clear impression with the 
dandy, though more water be put on. 

The water, leaving the paper thus, can be much 
reduced in quantity if a number of the tube-rolls are 
lowered out of contact. In this way the advantage 
of a longer time under the influence of the shake is 
gained, while the amount of water leaving the stuff 
can be regulated by putting up or letting down the 
tube-rolls. It should also be borne in mind that 
the greater the amount of backwater, the less likely 
is the paper to be sized and loaded up to the expec- 
tations formed, from the amount of these materials 
added in the engine. 

The speed at which the machine is to be driven, 
and the nature of the stock to be worked, must 
always be taken into consideration in regard to the 
length of wire to be put in. For the proper working 



LONG AND SHORT WIRES. 1 07 

of soft greasy stuff at a quick speed, a 50 ft. wire will 
be an advantage, in giving more time to get the water 
taken out ; while for fine stuff, not too soft, worked 
at a moderate speed, a wire 40 ft. in length will be 
best suited. The speed must also determine the 
amouHt of pitch to be given to the wire. 

A 40 ft. wire, travelling up to 100 ft. a minute, will 
require a pitch of about f of an inch from the breast 
roll to the first guide-roll, while if driven at a speed 
of 200 ft. a minute a i| inch pitch will be necessary. 
It is the custom with some engineers to put in very 
heavy breast-rolls, though for what purpose it is 
difficult to see. 

In addition to the inconvenience of handling a heavy 
breast-roll, when putting on a wire, the strain on the 
wire to keep it turning is very great, and tends to wear 
it out much sooner. A light roll would answer the 
purpose equally well, and offer much less resistance 
to the wire when running, as well as being much 
easier to shake. 

The manner in which the shake is given and the 
length of the stroke have a great deal to do with the 
spread and look of the sheet. If the stroke is too 
long the stuff will be washed back from the deckle 
strap, thinning the edges, and causing a white mark, 
similar to that caused by a ridge, to appear about 
3 inches from the edge on each side. 

Should the brasses which support the shake bars 
become worn, or the pins which connect the bars with 



108 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

the frame be too thin, the double shake, caused by the 
play of the brasses or pins, will counteract the original 
shake, and, instead of the smooth push and pull, a 
jerky disconnected motion, which will be sure to thin 
the edges, will be given. 

The end of the save-all should not come quite up 
to the breast-roll, but should be so placed as to ensure 
that no stuff may become jammed between it and the 
roll. When too close, any stuff which may pass round 
the roll will, instead of passing on to the felt-covered 
guard-stick and being washed away by the water, lie 
against it and the roll until it becomes hard, when it 
will act as a serious drag on it when turning. A 
strong flow of water should always be kept on 
the guard-stick, which, while being close enough to 
catch the stuff, should not press too hard on the 
roll. 

Machines which work strong greasy stuff are some- 
times fitted with three pump boxes, so that no 
difficulty may be experienced in taking out the water. 
The majority, however, have only two, and when the 
stuff is greasy a great deal of trouble and broke is 
often caused by the water flooding over the boxes and 
" worming " in front of the coucher. 

This is more liable to happen when the bars on the 
pump-box are faced with mahogany than if vulcanite, 
brass, or glass has been used to face them. Mahogany- 
faced boxes, though less hard on the wire, are very 
apt to vibrate when drawing hard, and this prevents 



COUCH-ROLLS. log 

the air-cock from being shut as much as is needful to 
enable the pumps to draw the water out. 

A strip of vulcanite inserted between two layers of 
mahogany along the ends and sides of the pump box 
does away with the vibration to a great extent, but it 
must"be fitted very closely, otherwise it will draw air. 

By working a jacket on the under couch-roll the 
paper will be less rough on the underside than if it is 
worked bare, and it will also bulk better. Being less 
dry, however, the paper is much more apt to stick to 
the press-roll. 

Another objection, and perhaps the most serious of 
all, is that the small particles of sand or grit, liable to 
get into the cover, ridge and score the wire very 
badly, and if the wire is run bare for any time it 
is very bad for running into a crease. It will be 
noticed that when a wire, after running some time, 
becomes slack on either of the edges, it is generally 
the backside if the water for the wash-roll enters 
at the foreside, and vice versa if it enters from the 
back. 

The reason of this is that the small holes in the 
water pipe are apt to become choked up at the end 
farthest from the inflow, and the wire, owing to being 
much more dry, is strained in its passage over the 
rolls. Apart from this, a good strong shower should 
always be kept on the wash-roll, in order that any free 
acid left in the pulp and liable to become deposited in 
the meshes may be washed out. 



HO PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

Attention to this, and also to thoroughly washing the 
wire when shutting down for any length of time, will 
keep the meshes clear, lessen the strain of the pumps, 
and improve the appearance of the sheet, in addition 
to prolonging the life of the wire. 

When making soft sized papers, the froth is usually 
much more troublesome than when alum has been 
added to the pulp. This froth often comes away with 
the stuff from under the slices, and makes " worms." 
To cure this, the slices must either be lowered a little 
or more water put on, so that the level behind the 
slices may be raised and prevent the froth escaping. 

Care must be taken not to lower them too much, or 
the rush of stuff underneath will cause the carbonic 
acid, always more or less liable to be present in the 
water used in the beaters, to escape, and in doing so 
to cause " bells," which, when broken by the dandy, 
leave a mark on the surface of the paper. This 
frothing and belling is always worse when steam is 
used to clear knots in the pulp, and should any of 
the bleaching solution used in the engine remain un- 
decomposed, the heat will have the effect of liberating 
the carbonic acid, which is the cause of the froth. 

Sometimes, even when the slices are kept clear of 
froth, small bubbles will escape on the edge and 
come down the wire with the deckle strap. These 
bubbles are often the unsuspected cause of worming 
at the dandy, especially should the edge be a little 
thickened and the pump-box end not full out. Under 



FROTH-KILLERS. 1 1 1 

these conditions they are not broken by the suction 
of the pump, and passing along the front of the dandy 
cause the worms to come away. 

If drawing out the deckle strap a little and also the 
end of the pump does not cure the trouble, a piece of 
soft paper should be folded so as to fit in behind the 
slices close to the knee and along it a little, so as to 
prevent the bubbles escaping along the edge of the 
strap. 

The bells which gather on the edge of a laid dandy 
can be kept away by rubbing a little oil on the 
dandy just off from the edge of the paper, or, better 
still, by moistening the cloth used to keep away spots 
just over the edge with a little sperm oil, which has 
the same effect. 

The trouble with froth is so bad in some mills that 
patent froth-killers are resorted to in order to keep it 
down. These concoctions are very often adulterated 
with resin, which adulteration is sometimes carried to 
an extent that causes the paper to stick determinedly 
to the press-roll, and leaves a deposit of resin among 
the stuff which gathers on the doctor. 

When the liability to froth is great, special attention 
should be given to the water used in the engine, as 
the carbonic acid expelled from the lime salts con- 
tained in hard water is often one of the sources of 
its origin. 

The alum solution should be added when furnishing, 
and if the water be hard an additional quantity of 



H2 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING 

alum will require to be put in in order to precipitate 
the salts contained in it. 

The chlorine compounds must be completely neutra- 
lised by means of antichlor. 

The following recipe is said to make a very efficient 
froth-killer, the use of which will lead to no bad 
results in causing the paper to stick to the press- 
roll : — One-and-a-half gallons of linseed oil, mixed 
with one gallon of bleach, and a gill and a-half of 
turpentine. 

To keep the dandy free from bells when making 
laid papers at a quick speed, a gentle puff of steam 
should be blown through it from a perforated iron 
pipe, hung down in front of it in such a way that the 
steam will meet the dandy at a slight angle and be 
blown clear of the stuff. 

For quick driving, the stuff must be quickly pre- 
pared in the beater, so that it may not be soft, but 
settle down quickly and part with the water easily. 
Though the engines must not be made too stiff to 
prepare such stuff, there is no reason why they should 
be filled thinner than usual. 

Stuff prepared in an engine filled about the usual 
consistency, but not heavily, when treated somewhat 
sharply with the roll at first, and yet not so cut up 
as to be rendered fine, will felt closely and part with 
the water easily though made at a quick speed. 

When, however, the engines are filled with a larger 
proportion of water than usual, lightly loaded (with 



STICKING AT THE PRESS-ROLL. 113 

stuff, not clay, or other so-called "loading" material) 
and cut up quickly, the stuff produced will undoubtedly 
be free, and most likely fine, at least the finest of the 
fibres will be very fine, owing to the ease with which 
they are got at by the roll, with the result that it will 
" bellf" froth, and stick to the press-roll. 

It would seem as if such stuff when once up the 
press-roll had not enough cohesiveness to stand drawing 
down, but when once down lacks the power to run 
up so often as might be expected, from the difficulty 
experienced in getting it down when it does break ; 
as it will be noticed that with stuff thus prepared there 
are fewer breaks at the press-roll than is sometimes 
the case with stuff which leaves the roll much more 
easily. 

It sometimes happens when making wove papers, 
with the pump well shut, that the drawing power of 
the pump is hampered owing to the cock being so 
much closed, and when this is the case the back lash 
from the pump causes the paper, especially if it be 
thin, to fold over at the edge in an almost imperceptible 
crease. This crease may give no sign of its presence 
until the last set of cylinders, or calenders, are reached, 
but it is almost certain to cause a break there. A little 
more water, or shake, and the pump box opened a 
little, will make this disappear entirely. 

Another very frequent source of cracks and breaks 
between the cylinders and calenders is having the wire 
too slack. When the wire is too slack it is apt to 



114 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

crease the paper when passing under the couch-roll, 
but in such a way that it is scarcely noticeable, unless 
the machine-man knows where to look for it. 

This is most liable to happen when making thick 
paper with a narrow deckle ; and the first thing the 
machine-man should do, when he is at a loss to account 
for breaking on such papers, is to hold a light under 
the web, between the under-coucher and the wet-felt 
roll, so that he may make sure if the creases are there. 
If the wire is causing them, they will seem like a small 
black streak running a little way in from the edge. 
Tightening up the wire a few turns, and putting more 
weight on the coucher, will have the effect of curing 
them. 

When the coucher cover becomes worn on the edges 
much trouble and worry are often caused by the paper, 
instead of couching properly, adhering to the jacket, 
and, if not running up the roll altogether, going far 
enough up to cause the edge to crack and the web 
to crease going under the press-roll. 

This may be greatly helped by easing the weights 
on the coucher and raising the guard-board a little. 
The guard-board must not be lifted much, just enough 
to keep the cover moistened with water, so that the 
suction on the paper may be lessened. Slackening 
the wire draw will also help it, by allowing the web 
to go farther down the wire, and thus the risk of its 
adhering to the coucher is not so great. By fixing a 
small jet of water so that it will play on the edge 



DANDY ROLLS. 1 15 

of the coucher, which comes in contact with the paper 
just before it passes under the guard-board, the edge 
can be kept much cleaner, which also lessens the 
liability of the web to adhere to it. 

Dandy rolls are usually made half an inch less in 
circumference and three-quarters of an inch more in 
breadth between each name, to ensure that the sheet 
will cut to the size after the shrinkage and expansion 
caused when the paper is in contact with the hot 
cylinders and on the driers. Sometimes dandy rolls 
are wanted to cut above their given size, as when, for 
instance, a sheet 17 X 27 in. is to be made with the 
foolscap roll which cuts 13I x \6\ in. In order to 
bring the name up to the size it will have to be 
stretched half an inch. 

With long stuff, which stretches easily, this is, under 
ordinary circumstances, a matter of no great difficulty ; 
but when fine stuff is being worked it is sometimes 
quite impossible to obtain the size without unduly 
stretching the sheet. The first thing to be done in 
order to bring up the size, in such a case, is to hang 
the dandy as much as possible, and so make it revolve 
more slowly ; then the cloth should be let down on the 
roll, as much as can be risked without retarding it in 
such a way as to cause it to streak the paper. 

The wire should be slowered so as to tighten the 
web between the under-coucher and the wet-felt. The 
second press should be driven a little harder by taking 
off a piece of the packing from the driven pulley, or, 



Il6 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

if there be none on, by putting a small piece on the 
driver, and the draw from the second press to the 
cylinders tightened up in the same manner. 

It is better always to take off than put on packing, 
unless the belts are very slack and inclined to slip, as 
in this way there is less chance of the packing accumu- 
lating and stretching the belts, besides causing the 
draws to work with an irregular jerky motion, which 
is very likely to crack the web at some time when they 
are tighter than usual. Even when the size is up to 
the measurement, without any undue straining of the 
web, the distance between the names must be measured 
frequently, especially if the nature of the stuff is being 
altered. 

A fine engine will draw in the sheet as much as 
one-eighth, and sometimes three-sixteenths, of an inch, 
while longer stuff will cause it to expand in the same 
proportion. Not infrequently, when working a broad 
deckle, the distance between the middle names, 
measuring across the wire, will be found to be less 
than that between those in the side sheets, though 
the usual three-quarters of an inch has been allowed 
when putting the names on the dandy. 

This is especially liable to occur on a broad machine, 
and is due to the couch-roll and press-roll yielding in 
the middle when put down hard at the edges. The 
middle sheets are thus damper when they come in 
contact with the hot cylinders, and the suddenness of 
the reaction makes them shrink more than the side 



DANDY ROLLS. II 7 

sheets, which are much drier and less affected by the 
heat. The patent anti-deflection press-rolls, with which 
some of the most recently built machines are fitted, are 
said to completely prevent this unequal pressure. 

Dandies for loft-dried papers should have one-eighth 
more than the usual three-quarters of an inch allowed 
between the names, owing to the shrinkage while 
hanging in the drying loft. Dandies for grass papers 
should not have more than half to five-eighths of an 
inch allowed, as grass shrinks less than rags. 

When setting a lined dandy it must be placed 
perfectly parallel, so that the lines come exactly on the 
top of each other when the sheets are folded. To 
ensure that it is parallel it should be measured, after 
having been placed in the brackets, either from the 
couch-roll or the deckle straps on each side. The 
simplest way in which to determine whether a named 
laid dandy is placed so as to have the names equi- 
distant from the edges is to count the number of bars 
from the centre of each name to the deckle edge on 
each side. 

The same holds good when the water-mark consists 
of a name and a device on each sheet. Should the 
name extend over an odd number of spaces, such as 
five or seven, while the device occupies an even 
number, such as four, the space between the middle 
bar of the name will require to be taken as the centre, 
while the centre of the device will consist of the middle 
bar. 



Ii8 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

When setting a named wove dandy, the water-marks 
on which are placed as on a laid roll, namely, across 
instead of round the roll, as is usual with the wove 
dandy, the breadth of the names will have to be 
measured, and, from the points thus fixed as centres, 
the breadth outwards to the deckle edge on each side 
made to agree. Named wove dandies on which the 
water-marks are placed round, instead of across, should 
be measured in the same way. 

When the names are placed so that one side of the 
sheet will be blank, while the water-mark occupies 
the other, a piece of the web, the full breadth, 
should be taken off whenever the paper has reached 
the reel, and after allowing for pairing it should be 
marked off with a pencil, according to the size of 
the sheet. 

When this has been done it should be again divided 
into half or quarter sheets, and then a glance at the 
sheet held against the light will show if the names are 
right, and if not, in what direction they will require 
to be altered. A few years ago Brown's patent laid 
dandy, which possesses several advantages over the 
ordinary laid roll, was introduced. 

This dandy may be described as a wove roll round 
which the laid lines are fixed, while the bars, instead 
of running round, as is the case with the ordinary 
form, are placed along its length. One advantage in 
using this roll is that on 6o-in. machines large and 
medium post can be made three times 16J in. and 



BROWN'S PATENT DANDY ROLL. 119 

17^ in. respectively, instead of twice 2of in. and22^in., 
as is the case with the common laid roll. 

When large orders of these sizes are made a con- 
siderable increase in the output can thus be effected. 
It is well known that less colour is required to give 
the same shade on wove papers than on laid, the 
reason being that the close pressure of the wove dandy 
brings the finest of the fibres to the surface ; and thus, 
by making the surface smoother and more compact, 
the colour is much better brought out. Owing to the 
close wove cover underlying the laid lines on Brown's 
dandy, the same even pressure is given to the surface, 
with the result that less colour is necessary, and in 
addition the sheet is much clearer. 

In the making of high-coloured papers, for which 
20 or 30 lbs. of expensive colouring matters require to 
be used, this saving is not to be underrated. Though 
a large amount of water is used with it, it will not 
" lift " ; at least the tendency is so small that it may 
be said not to exist, as it is only when there is an 
excessive amount of water before it that it shows any 
signs of lifting. 

Another great advantage is that it does not " bell " 
when driving hard. It has, however, one very serious 
drawback by reason of which its adoption has been 
much restricted. Owing to its weight, as at present 
made, the laid lines are very liable to leave their 
impression on the under side, making it rough. 

In order to avoid this, it must be hung on the 



120 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

brackets as much as possible, and a large amount of 
water brought forward. If, instead of the ordinary 
form of wove roll, the improved skeleton form were 
used to support the laid lines, the roll when finished 
would be much lighter, and thus the danger of the 
impression showing on the underside would be much 
lessened. 

To prevent " blowing," the felt-roll immediately in 
front of the press-roll should be raised a few inches 
above the level of the under press-roll. When making 
thin papers, the resistance of the air between the 
web and the felt often causes blowing, even when the 
draw between the wire and the felt is as tight as it 
can be run without cracking the edges. In such a 
case the press-roll must be put hard down, the wet 
felt tightened up, so that the warp may be opened out 
and allow the air to escape and the seam kept square. 

When the seam of the felt is off the square the warp 
lies at the same angle as the seam, and thus by closing 
the pores retards the escape of the air. A very simple 
and effectual remedy is to run the paper over a small 
tube-roll, placed just in front of the press-roll about 
an inch above the wet-felt. If the edges are uneven 
the frayed stuff adheres to this roll, and has to be 
taken off frequently, or it will crack and stretch the 
edge of the web. 

Another plan is to run a small felt-covered tube-roll 
on the top of the paper as it passes on to the first 
felt-roll; but when making named papers the name is 



WET- AND DRY-FELTS. 12 1 

liable to become stretched unequally owing to the 
irregular speed of this roll. By placing a small pump- 
box, connected with the vacuum pumps, under the wet- 
felt close up to the under press-roll, the suction of the 
pumps will .draw all the air through the felt, and thus 
completely cure blowing. Putting on the felt with the 
pile lying the wrong way will also tend to keep it 
away, owing to the pores being kept more open, thus 
allowing the air to escape more readily. 

When running a broad deckle the wet-felt should be 
kept tight, as in this way the edges are opened and 
allow the water to be better pressed out, and thus 
there is less danger of the web sticking to the press- 
roll. To square the seam either of wet or dry felts, 
the side that is first must be tightened up. The same 
rule applies to the wire, and in each case care must 
be taken to check the run, as both wires and felts will 
incline to run from the side which has been tightened up. 

There is great diversity of opinion among machine- 
men as to which side a dry-felt will run to when 
tightened up. Some hold that it will run to the slack 
side; others that it will run to the tight side. The 
direction in which a dry-felt will run depends on which 
side of the cylinder it has been tightened up. 

To take the instance of a single cylinder felt sup- 
ported, say, on five rolls. Should the top roll be 
tightened up at one side the felt will invariably run 
to the other, and if the seam was straight before 
tightening it will forge ahead at the slack side. 



122 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

Suppose that the foreside top roll has been tightened 
up in order to square the seam, which has gone so 
much ahead in front as to threaten to run the felt into 
a crease, and that the felt is travelling back so quickly 
as to be in danger of turning over and bursting at the 
backside edge, though the guide-roll has been changed 
as much as possible to bring it forward, raising the 
backside top roll would set it forward again, but would 
not put away the crease, which is the greatest trouble. 

If, however, the foreside roll, round which the felt 
turns as it leaves the cylinder to go up over the top 
roll, be lowered about a quarter of an inch or more if 
need be, the seam will at once begin to come square, 
and the felt will come forward, thus running to the 
tight side. 

Should the roll round which the felt runs to come 
in contact with the cylinder be lowered, the felt will 
run to the backside, thus proving that a dry-felt 
will run to the tight side when tightened at the side 
at which it leaves the cylinder, and to the slack side 
when tightened at the side at which it comes in contact 
with it. 

The seam should always be squared up after start- 
ing, and carefully watched so that it may not run 
ahead at either side ; otherwise the felt will become 
unequally stretched, and give much trouble by moving 
about when it gets old and worn out. 

The rubbers with which most press-rolls are now 
fitted are a great boon in saving the felt from being 



FIRST AND SECOND PRESS-ROLLS. 123 

cut, should any hard substance pass between the rolls 
when the press is firm down. No oil should ever be 
poured down the screw, as it would tend to rot the 
rubber ; and besides, there is no need for doing so, as 
the oil on the bottom side is quite sufficient to keep 
it working smoothly, as from time to time it passes 
through the nut which works against the rubber when 
the roll is raised for turning or putting on a wet-felt. 

When couching and pressing lightly it sometimes 
happens that the pile on the wet-felt becomes clogged 
up with the soft stuff, and the paper adhering to it 
until just under the second press goes up in a crease. 
A narrow piece of wood — a long foot-rule by pre- 
ference — placed between the paper and the felt just 
as it leaves the press-roll, will, by separating the paper 
from the felt, prevent the creasing caused in this way. 
The foot-rule should be fixed on to the frame in such 
a way as to be clear of the felt, otherwise it will gather 
wet stuff which, passing round on the felt, may cause 
a break at the press-roll. 

It is the practice in some mills to press very lightly 
with the first press and keep the second press hard 
down, the idea being to have as little felt marking on 
the underside as possible, and also by taking out the 
wire mark with the pressure applied to the underside, 
to improve the surface. 

With this method of working the second press felts 
have to be frequently changed, owing to the passage 
of so much water pressed from the paper clogging 



124 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

them quickly. A dirty second press felt is one of the 
most frequent causes of the unevenness in drying, 
termed " cockling," as the paper in contact with the 
dirty part of the felt is much more damp when it comes 
in contact with the cylinders, and thus is liable to 
become blistered from the suddenness of the drying. 

Keeping the dry-felts tight has the effect of prevent- 
ing cockling by pressing the paper more uniformly 
against the cylinders. Whether there be any special 
need to have the paper flat or not, the drying should 
always be conducted gradually, the heat of the 
cylinders gradually increasing as the paper nears the 
dry end. With thin papers, especially those made 
from strong linen rags, the press must be put hard 
down, and the heat of the cylinders so regulated as 
to leave the paper slightly damp when it comes in 
contact with the last two or three, which should only 
be sufficiently hot to dry without causing any sudden 
contraction of the web. 

Unless the seam of the second press felt be per- 
fectly square it is very liable to crease ; if it should 
do so the side which is last should be lowered down, 
as by doing so the creasing is counteracted more 
quickly than by tightening the side which has run 
ahead. When passing the second press the draw 
from the first press to the cylinders must be slackened, 
and to do so double the amount of packing that would 
be necessary to slacken the same strain from the 
second press to the cylinders will be required. 



CHANGING THE SPEED. 1 25 

The same rule holds good when passing the smooth- 
ing rolls, and of course double the amount has to be 
taken off when putting the paper through again. 
Though, as a rule, when changing from thick to thin 
papers the draws will require to be tightened up, very 
little "packing will be necessary should the speed be 
much faster than that at which the thicker paper was 
made. This is due to the increased momentum given 
to the pulleys owing to the quickened speed. 

When making thick paper at a speed of about 18 ft. 
per minute, the belts will require to be very tight, or 
they will slip, owing to the strain of driving, unaided 
by the momentum which a higher speed will give. It 
sometimes happens that when driving at a slow speed 
the wire will run to one side, and refuse to respond 
to the guide. Should this threaten to damage the 
wire, the speed should be quickened up, as by so 
doing the wire will answer the guide much better. 

If the machine be fitted with the improved cone 
driving, quickening the speed is a very simple matter ; 
but should the difference thus made be insufficient, 
as much as 20 ft. more per minute can be obtained 
by tightening up the thumb-screw attached to the 
governor of the engine. 

This increase of the speed generally has the effect 
of bringing the wire back, but should it prove inef- 
fectual the only plan left is to shut down, and, having 
taken off the couch-roll and slackened the wire a little, 
to draw it back into its right position. 



126 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

It is assumed that everything has been already done, 
so far as altering and tightening the wire at the side to 
which it is running can be made to effect any change 
in its course. When making webs, such as those for 
use in the Morse telegraph machine, difficulty is often 
experienced in getting them to bulk equally. This 
unequal bulk may be caused by a want of uniformity 
in the spread on the wire, or a difference in the 
pressure of the couch or press-rolls. Badly ground 
calender rolls will also cause inequality both of surface 
and of bulk. 

In this connection it should be remembered that, 
when paper is passing through the calender rolls, the 
drier it leaves the press-roll the better will it bulk. 
Should the pressure on the rolls be very light, or 
should the paper be finished rough, the less pressure 
put on the press-roll the bulk will be better. 

Each machine has, owing to differences in fitting up 
or other causes which exert an influence on the 
pressure given to the paper, its own peculiarities. 
Sometimes a softness on the edge may be filled up 
by hanging or putting down the second press-roll, 
according as the paper is being glazed or not. When 
the stuff is free, and thus spreading and filling up the 
edges well, the webs will be found to bulk, more 
uniformly. 

Should the paper begin to break between the 
calender rolls from any unaccountable cause, the first 
thing the machine-nam ought to do, after having 



BREAKING AT THE CALENDERS. 127 

satisfied himself that it is not too dry, is to see that 
none of the draws are too tight, especially the draw 
from the first to the second press-rolls. Should this 
draw be too tight, the web will be pulled and stretched 
at the edges, and though no cracks may be visible, the 
contraction, and consequent strain, as the paper is 
dried, will cause the weakened edge to break as the 
draws become tightened towards the dry end. 

Should the draws be all right and the breaking 
continue, the edges should be closely watched for a 
turn of the wire, to see that no dirt has become fixed 
in the meshes, and by hindering the passage of the 
water and the suction of the pumps is causing a weak 
spot near the edge of the web. A dirty or raised seam 
will cause breaking both at the press-roll and the 
calenders. A little vitriol poured on the dirty part will 
generally clean it; but should the dirt still remain, 
blowing it with a jet of steam will take it out. 

Not unfrequently dirty spots, more than usually 
difficult to get rid of, will be noticed in the wire after 
the mechanics or joiners have been fitting up new 
boxes about the machine. These are generally caused 
by small pieces of white lead, which have been left 
lying about the boxes, coming away with the stuff and 
being pressed into the meshes by the couch-roll. 

When the trouble is caused by a raised seam, the 
"stent "-roll should be put down a few turns. The 
wet-felt should next be examined, to see that no dried 
stuff or other hard substance has adhered to it near 



128 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

the edge of the web. Should any such hard material 
be coming between the paper and the felt as it passes 
under the press-roll, cracks, only perceptible as small 
dark marks, will be made. If this is the cause of 
breaking, the marks will be noticed by examining the 
end of the web just where it has been severed. 

Breaking at the calenders may also be caused 
through having the draws too slack, thus causing the 
paper to fold over at the edge when entering the press- 
rolls. Should the cylinder draws be too slack, espe- 
cially near the wet end, the felts, if they are tight, will 
take up the slack, and in doing so cause very minute 
folds on the edge, which, through being damp when 
calendered, will make a weak spot on the edge of 
the web. 

When making thin papers at a quick speed, the 
press-roll should be kept well down, while the steam 
on the first cylinders should be regulated so as to dry 
very gradually. By keeping the press-roll firmly 
down, the paper is made more dry, and thus more 
easily handled when leading it over the machine. 

When starting very heavy papers, at a slow speed, 
the small plug just behind the apron-board should be 
drawn out, so that the flooding, so liable when starting 
such papers, may be prevented. Sometimes it is 
necessary to change from one revolving strainer to 
another without shutting, and the strainer to be started 
is generally furnished from the chest by means of 
pails. 



CHANGING STRAINERS. I2Q 

If the strainers are in such a position that the flow 
of the stuff can be made to supply both of the strainers, 
a much easier and better plan is to put on an inch or so 
more stuff at the stuff-cock, and when the increase has 
had time to travel round the sand-trap to the strainers, 
to all<aw a little stuff to run into the strainer it is 
desired to start, at the same time running water into 
the strainer being worked, to make up for what is 
passing into the other with the stuff. 

While the strainer is filling up, the weight can be 
regulated by the amount of stuff allowed to flow into 
it, and a few minutes before it is full the stuff-cock 
should be put back to where it was before, that is, if 
no change is to be made in the weight. When full, all 
that is required is to open the sluice connecting it with 
the wire, at the same time shutting off the strainer that 
has been in use. 

If a jog strainer, or "knotter," as it is often called, 
be worked in connection with the strainer, the cocks 
will have to be reversed so as to allow the stuff from 
the strainer just started to pass through, when the 
other cock has been shut. 

Though each machine-man has his own method of 
working when putting on a wire, the following direc- 
tions will give an idea of how it should be gone about. 
Before making any preparations to cut off the old wire, 
the machine-man should see that all the pins which 
support the carrying-rolls in their brasses are properly 
secured, otherwise one or other of the rolls may fall 

9 



130 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

when the support of the wire is taken from under 
them. 

Having seen that everything is right, the wire 
should be cut on the edge, in two places, about an 
inch apart, close to the coucher, and the clutch put in 
for a second or two until the cut edge appears just on 
the under coucher. A quick tear will carry the rent 
right across to the back side, and the bottom side of 
the wire will fall down. 

The clutch should then be put in and struck out 
again until the wire has been rolled up sufficiently to 
lie between the under coucher and the wet-felt roll, 
when the wet-felt should be started, and then the wire 
clutch put in until all the wire has been wound up by 
the action of the two rolls. The wire clutch should 
then be struck out, and also the wet-felt. The engine 
should then be shut down until ready to start again. 

While the machine-man is taking off the slices and 
folding back the apron, some of the other hands should 
lift off the couch-roll on to a broad plank placed across 
the wet-felt frame just in front of the press-roll, care 
being taken not to let it come sharply against the small 
bracket to which the arm for moving the doctor is 
attached. 

The guide-roll should then be lifted out and placed 
in some place where there will be no danger of its 
being kicked against or marked in any way. While 
this is being done the deckle cones may be slacked 
and then taken out, and after the nuts fixing the deckles 



PUTTING ON A WIRE. 



r 3l 



to the frame have been taken off and screwed on to the 
top end of the screw to avoid being lost, the deckles 
should be lifted. 

Some of the hands should then lower the wash-roll 
and take out the pump boxes, while others are washing 
the twbe-rolls prior to lifting them out. When taking 
out the tube-rolls great care must be taken to avoid 
putting them out of their order, and, if possible, the 
same one should always take charge of this, so that the 
risk of confusion may be lessened. 

The tube-rolls all out, the save-all should be lifted up 
against the frame at one side, so as to make the water 
and china clay or other loading material which has 
adhered to it run off quickly when washing, before 
lifting it out. After the save-all and the supports are 
taken out, the carrying-rolls should be let down, and 
while the breast-roll is being taken out two of the 
hands should go for the new wire, so that no time may 
be taken up waiting for it after everything is ready. 

Meanwhile the assistant should see that the pump 
boxes have been washed, ready for the millwright who 
is to plane them, that they may be finished in time to 
be put in after the save-all and tube-rolls have been put 
in. The new wire having been put carefully on to the 
under coucher should be unrolled as it is taken up to 
the breast-roll, which is then put in, care being taken 
to leave out none of the keys which may have 
been fixed between the breast-roll brasses and the 
bracket. 



132 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

The brasses need not be tightened up until the 
coucher has been put on and the wire ready to be 
squared off. The supports for the save-all having 
been put in, the save-all is placed in position, and then 
the tube-rolls, one by one, placed in the brasses. If 
care has been exercised in lifting them out in their 
proper order, the numbers on the frame and those on 
the rolls should correspond without any changing and 
replacing. 

Care should also be taken to turn all the brasses 
with the same sides to the front, so that the wire will 
lie perfectly square. The pump boxes should next be 
put in and the wash-roll lifted into its place, then the 
carrying-rolls and guide-roll placed in position, and 
the wire turned round by the hand, and any dirt that 
may have become attached to it washed off with the 
water jet. 

This done, the stent-roll should be held, supported 
by one at each side, while the coucher is put on, and 
while the machine-man is getting the apron folded down 
the deckles should be lowered, and then the knees and 
slices fixed on. The deckle cones are then lifted into 
their place, the strap having been put on the outside of 
the supports so as to be right when they are in. 

Meanwhile the breast-roll brasses should be 
tightened up, the wire squared off, and the stent-roll 
put down with little more than its own weight. The 
breast-roll guard stick and the stick which keeps it in 
position should then be put in, the guide bar put across 



STARTING A NEW WIRE. 133 

and attached to the guide, the wash-roll doctor, and 
wash-pipe fitted up, and the save-all spout placed in 
position ready for a start. The water pipe for the 
breast guard stick should also be put on so that it may 
not be forgotten, and the breast-roll started dry. 

When starting a new wire the wheels of the guide, 
which are acted on by the Strieker attached to the 
journal of the guide-roll, should be placed in the centre 
of the small bars on which they slide. When in this 
position the arm to which they are attached, and also 
the one which moves on the pivot fixed on the frame, 
will be parallel to the wire, and thus the danger that 
the wire may run to the side much lessened. 

Should the position of the spades on the guide-bar 
not allow of this, they should be altered so as to bring 
the arms parallel. Even when these precautions are 
taken the wire will sometimes run to the side, and 
refuse to respond to the action of the guide, thus 
moving the arms, and the wheels actuated by them, at 
an angle to the frame. 

When checked by the hand the wire may steady 
itself in this position for some time, but so long as the 
wheels are so much off the square it cannot be trusted 
to remain steady, as it is sure eventually to yield to the 
guide, and when it does so it will travel back, or 
forward, as the case may be, with such rapidity, owing 
to the guide-roll being so much turned in the direction 
to which it is now running, that unless it is im- 
mediately checked by the hand it will, in all proba- 



134 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

bility, run off to the side and become jammed against 
the frame- 

Every machine-man knows the trouble and anxiety 
occasioned by the uncertainty as to when such a wire 
may run to the side, to which he knows it must come 
before it can be trusted to regulate itself. A good 
plan in such a case is to stop the suction of the 
pumps, either by shutting the cock or by drawing out 
the end of the box, as immediately the strain of the 
suction is removed the wire will answer to the guide 
and run to the side to which it is checked. 

As the machine-man is at hand expecting the " run," 
no difficulty is experienced in checking it in time to 
prevent it being damaged. Such a proceeding means 
a break, but compared with the constant watchfulness 
and the liability of the wire to be jammed should the 
run take place before the machine-man can get it 
checked, that' is a very small matter. 

Whenever the wire has fairly started to run back, 
the pump should again be put into action, that the 
speed with which the wire is travelling may be 
lessened. The spades on the guide-bar should not be 
pressed hard against the edges of the wire ; but should 
be clear about a sixteenth of an inch on each side, so 
as to allow the wire to steady itself without the 
continual action of the guide, if possible. 

Should the seam of the wire be raised up, it very 
often causes bells to appear all along its length. This 
is owing to the air passing round the breast-roll 



PUTTING ON A COUCHER JACKET. 135 

beneath the raised seam, and in its escape from under 
the apron carrying with it the frothy sizing compounds 
left in the meshes of the wire by the passage of the 
backwater. 

That it is these frothy matters which cause the 
bells- and not the presence of the air alone, is readily 
seen when a shower is placed so as to play on the 
wire just before it goes up under the breast-roll. 
Immediately the water is turned on, the bells will 
disappear, owing to the froth having been washed out 
of the meshes. The air is still passing round the 
breast-roll ; but owing to the absence of the froth no 
bells are made when it escapes through the stuff, as the 
seam passes from under the apron. 

Before proceeding to draw on a new coucher jacket, 
which looks like being tight, the roll should have one 
or two pailfuls of hot water thrown over it, and then 
should be thoroughly dried. The heat of the water has 
the effect of causing the roll, if it be an ordinary 
wooden one, to shrink, thus making the jacket slide on 
more easily. When starting a new cover, on fine stuff, 
which is always most liable to adhere to the pile, as 
little weight should be worked on the roll as possible, 
and the guard-board should be put firmly down. 

Before starting, one or two handbowls of china, 
clay should be poured on the cover as the roll is 
running dry, so that the pile may be flattened down, 
and the cover made more hard, through the closing 
of the pores by the clay. 



1 36 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

When starting the paper no water should be run 
on the roll, though a handbowl of clay may be 
poured on for some time, and when it is turned on 
the pipe should be turned so that the water will run 
down the front of the guard-board on to the cover, 
as if the jets play directly on the cover the pile will 
be raised, and the liability to picking much increased. 
Should the paper threaten to lift on the roll, a little 
turpentine or engine size poured on the cover will 
cause it to go down. 

Much trouble is often caused, when making coloured 
papers, especially blues, with a new couch-cover, 
as the fine fibres which adhere to the pile cause 
a white mark to appear on the surface. If the guard- 
board be passing even a little water, it will cause 
the cover to pick up the stuff just when it runs on 
to the web. A number of brushes weighted with 
lead, in order to keep them steady, placed on the roll 
just in front of the guard-board, will keep the cover 
clean and prevent the marks from appearing on the 
sheet. A little turpentine is a very useful thing to 
have about the machine, as there is nothing better 
for cleaning the edges of the couch-roll, and prevent- 
ing sticking at the press-roll. 

When the machine calenders have been "sweating," 
and are difficult to start, as is often the case on the 
Monday morning, one or two handbowls of soda lye 
(soda ash) should be poured over them and allowed to 
become dry, when they will usually start away all right. 



CHAPTER X. 

ANIMAL SIZING.— DRYING. 

Animal Sizing. — Before the extraction of the gelatine 
can be proceeded with, the hides or horn piths must 
first be freed from the lime which has been used 
to preserve them. This may be satisfactorily 
accomplished by allowing them to lie covered up 
with cold water for about twenty-four hours, the 
water being changed twice. In order to ensure that 
all the lime has been removed, they may be further 
washed in revolving wire-covered drums for about 
half an hour before being put into the heater. 

The extraction of the size is usually conducted in 
copper-lined jacketed heaters, into the bottom of which 
a wooden frame is fitted so as to allow the size to 
pass through, while keeping back any slime that 
would contaminate it. To make this more secure, 
an openly woven cloth is spread over the wooden 
frame. After the heater has been filled and the heat 
brought up to between 165 to 170 Fahr., the charge 
should stand for 15 to 17 hours before being drawn off. 



I3 8 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

Just before drawing off the steam should be turned 
on for a little, so as to make the size run more freely. 
When all the strong gelatine has been run to the 
store tanks, the hides should again be treated with 
water at a temperature of from i8o° to 190 Fahr., and 
allowed to stand as with the first drawing. 

The third infusion may be heated to about 200° Fahr., 
while the fourth, if there be a fourth taken off, may 
be boiled for an hour or so. The amount of water 
run in to the heaters for the different infusions must 
be regulated by the strength of the size required. 
The size should be run through a flannel cloth laid 
over a fine wirecloth sieve. 

The infusions may be arranged so as to run off 
a first and fourth together, and a second and third 
at the same time; but this, too, depends on the 
strength of size wanted. About 2\ per cent, of white 
soap should be added to each drawing, and thoroughly 
mixed before the alum is put in, otherwise the size 
will curd. The alum added equals about 30 per cent, 
of the weight of hides or piths infused. 

The alum is added with the idea of preserving 
the size, and the soap in order to prevent the sparkling 
caused by the alum, and to improve the surface when 
calendering. As the alum is in excess the soap is 
decomposed, with the result that the fatty oils thus 
liberated tend to enable the paper to take on a better 
finish. 

In the bottom of the chests used to hold the size 



TUB SIZING. 



139 



a lead-covered steam-pipe should be laid, in the form 
of a coil, so that the size may be heated, and thus 
made to run more easily before being pumped through 
the pipes to the sizing tub. If the chests be lead- 
lined, the inside should be rubbed with lard, so as to 
prevent the size from adhering to it. 

Some sizing tubs are fitted so as to carry the 
paper immersed in the size until just under the rolls, 
which remove the excess taken up ; but the best 
results are obtained when the web is raised from the 
size just after passing under the dipping-roll, and 
exposed to the air in its passage over the spared 
frame or the carrying-rolls. When the stuff is free, 
the tub has to be replenished more often than when 
it is soft, and though a larger amount of size is taken 
up, the paper is softer to handle and wets much 
easier. 

This is owing to the mussy nature of the fibres, 
which from being cut up so quickly in the beater 
are unable to retain the engine size, and thus, though 
more absorbent, and more permeated by the gelatine, 
they lack the firmness to support the size coating 
in such a way as to produce a grippy paper. This 
is especially noticeable if steam is being used to clear 
knots, or render the stuff more workable on the 
wire. 

When working the Marshall beater the sizer rolls 
are less apt to "peel" than if the stuff is prepared in 
the ordinary form of beater. This proves that there 



14° 



PRACTICAL PAPER MAKING. 



is less powdery stuff made in the passage through 
the perfecting engine than when the stuff is reduced 
to a fine state by the repeated action of the roll. 

If this peeling is caused by the use of steam, as is 
often the case with grass papers, a little extra starch, 
added either to the stuff in the chests or put down 
with the next engine, will help to counteract the soft- 
ness and make the paper less apt to adhere to the 
rolls. If this does not cure it, a piece of wood covered 
with felt should be pressed against the top roll in the 
same way as the guard-board on the coucher. 

When the paper is not run through the second press- 
rolls, the rough underside will not readily take up the 
size, and much trouble from streaks on the underside 
is often caused by this irregular sizing. This can be 
cured by fixing a narrow piece of wood against the 
sides of the tub, so that it will be beneath the level 
of the size near to the dipping-roll. As the web passes 
between this and the dipping-roll the rubbing against 
the underside spreads the size equally over it, and the 
streaking at once disappears. 

To prevent the froth made by the dipping-roll from 
passing round and being carried away on the web, 
a narrow piece of felt, or even a piece of thick twine, 
should be tied to the sides of the tub so as to press 
against the surface of the dipping-roll along its length. 

When sizing strong rag papers, or, in fact, any thin 
papers containing rags, the top roll should never be 
raised in the least, because when raised the knots and 



TUB SIZING. 141 

strings liable to be carried away with such papers are 
not flattened, and in further raising the roll allow the 
size to pass through and cause sticking when running 
on to the drier. 

On thick papers made from fine stuff, hanging the top 
roll a little often saves a great deal of labour in keeping 
it free from the powdery stuff which is so apt to 
adhere to it. 

For thick or medium weight papers made from hard 
stock the size should be heated a little, so that it 
may penetrate it more readily; but for light weights 
it should be worked with as little heat as possible, 
as being so thin the paper is soaked more readily, and 
is liable to become so softened that it will scarcely 
bear its own weight going over the carrying-rolls. 

By heating the size a poorer quality may be used, 
though this is partly equalised by the increased amount 
taken up by the paper. When paper is reeled at the 
sizer and allowed to stand for some time before being 
dried, it will have a much harder rattle and be better 
sized. 

High-coloured papers are, however, very liable to 
fade when standing, owing to the action of the alum 
contained in the size. The edges are also very apt 
to stick together and tear, through the size having 
become dry, unless they are washed with hot water 
once or twice while standing. The drier and cooler 
the web is when it enters the size the better will the 
sizing be accomplished. 



142 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

When not perfectly dry the paper has a soft, mussy 
feeling after drying, owing to its having taken up less 
size through being moist when passing through the 
tub. 

Drying. — Notwithstanding the common belief that 
paper dried more by the action of the fans than by 
steam heat is the better sized, the reverse is the case. 
If the steam be checked and the fans driven as hard 
as possible, the paper, though dry, will not have a 
hard grippy feel. When as many of the fans as 
possible are stopped and the steam turned on full, 
the result will be a strong sized paper with a firm 
hard rattle. 

This would seem to be somewhat at variance with 
the undoubted fact that loft-dried papers are better 
sized than similar papers dried on the drier, but it 
must be borne in mind that the results obtained by 
exposing paper to the action of dry air for hours 
cannot be taken as supplying a theory for the treat- 
ment of papers dried in scarcely half as many minutes. 

In order to obtain the best results on the drier, 
the fans in the first portion should not be driven too 
hard, while the steam should be kept up. In the 
latter portion the speed of the fans should be increased 
and the steam checked. 

When drying thin paper made wholly or in large 
proportion from linen rags, it is often a matter of great 
difficulty to get it to run flat. If the drier is driven 



COCKLING. 143 

at the same speed as the machine with such papers, 
the "cockling," as it is termed, will be worse. 

When thin papers enter the size they are usually 
very hot and dry, consequently the fibres have become 
drawn together; but before the web has reached the 
size^rolls it will have expanded as much as three- 
quarters of an inch more than it measured when it 
entered the tub. This expansion takes place with 
all papers ; but owing to the size being worked colder 
on thin papers the reaction is more sudden, and 
consequently the liability to expand unequally much 
greater. 

When sizing strong cartridge papers, which are usually 
finished rough, and therefore wanted as flat as possible, 
the size should be hot. Running such papers straight 
on to the drier from the sizer, without reeling, helps to 
flatten them, and if they are wound against a revolving 
drum the pressure, as the roll gets larger, also tends to 
flatten them out. One drawback to running the paper 
straight on to the drier is that the alum in the size 
does not get time to penetrate into the pores, and the 
under side is apt to become covered with glistening 
specks. 

To cure this the size should be made up with a 
larger quantity of soap, reduced in strength and heated- 
It is the practice, in some mills, to run the paper over 
a hollow drum filled with cold water and kept cool by 
a stream of water running through it. Paper cooled 
in this way sizes better and runs flatter ; but with 



144 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

particular papers the better plan is to reel them at 
the machine and allow them to stand till cold before 
sizing. 

When drying such papers the drier should not be 
driven harder than about sixty feet a minute, while 
a good heat should be kept up. Even when standing 
no longer than it takes to change the speeds, paper 
made and sized at a hundred feet a minute, when dried 
at sixty feet with the same steam pressure, but with 
fewer fans running, will hardly be recognised as the 
same, it will feel so much firmer and be so much better 
sized. 

Paper allowed to stand after sizing is always more 
difficult to dry, owing to the size having penetrated 
into the pores, and this is more noticeable on damp, 
wet nights, when the air about the roof of the drying- 
house is more moist and less able to absorb the 
steam. 

When drying papers to be finished rough the guiding 
tapes should be run to the side as soon as the web 
has fairly started, and only put on again in time to 
keep the tail from trailing on the wire frame which 
usually covers the steam pipes used for heating. 
Formerly it was thought that three or four tapes on 
top and bottom were necessary, but one from the top 
and one from beneath are quite sufficient, and there 
is less risk of marking the paper than when more 
are used. 

In the drying of loft-dried papers the temperature 



LOFT DRYING. 145 

of the loft must be kept as near that of the ordinary 
summer atmosphere as possible, and as much advan- 
tage as possible should be taken of the atmospheric air, 
when sufficiently dry, to be admitted to the loft without 
risk of making the papers mussy after drying. 



CHAPTER XI. 

GLAZING AND BURNISHING. 

When paper is glazed by the calenders attached to the 
machine, it is usually damped before being put through 
the calender rolls. Prior to this, however, it has 
generally passed between what are called the smooth- 
ing rolls, which are situated just before the last set 
of drying cylinders. These usually consist of two rolls 
heated by steam, though not to the same extent as the 
calender rolls. 

By keeping the paper a little damp as it passes 
through these smoothing-rolls, and not heating the last 
cylinders any more than is necessary to prevent damp 
spots, the surface imparted by the calender-rolls is 
much improved. When a good surface is wanted the 
stuff must be kept fine, as long stuff, though taking 
on a good finish, always rises up in the sheet, causing 
a roughness, especially on the underside. To quote 
the remark of a shrewd old paper-maker — " It's just 
like smoothing sand and smoothing gravel." 

Even papers made from long stuff are very liable to 

lose their surface, owing to this rising of the longer 

146 



DAMPING. 147 

fibres, unless the pressure in glazing is sufficient to 
thoroughly close the sheet. The improvement which 
can be effected on the surface by finer stuff is greater 
than is usually supposed. 

The author knew a machine-man who used regularly 
to get his beater-man to empty a finer engine as soon 
as possible after his shift came on, with the result that, 
when the foreman came round, in about an hour and 
a half, to inspect the surface, the paper then being 
made was very much higher in finish than that made 
just before the outgoing shift had dropped off work. 

The form of damper usually employed to moisten 
the paper before it enters the calenders consists of 
two hollow copper drums of about 15 or 16 inches 
diameter, though, of course, they may be of any desired 
size. These drums are filled with cold water, and kept 
cold by means of a continuous flow passing through 
them. 

A copper pipe, perforated with numerous very 
minute holes, is placed along the front of each of the 
drums, so that the steam which is blown from the 
holes will condense in the cold drums. The drums 
are so placed that when the paper is running over 
them one will come in contact with the top and the 
other with the under side of the paper. The moisture 
deposited on the drums by the condensation of the 
steam is thus carried away on the paper, and helps 
greatly to improve the surface when subjected to the 
pressure and heat of the calender-rolls. 



148 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

Owing, however, to the moisture thus applied being 
merely on the surface, and not having time to penetrate 
into the paper, the high finish thus obtained is very 
liable to go back. A little sperm oil should be poured 
on the drums just at the edges of the web, so that 
the water may be prevented from passing on to the 
calender rolls, and so causing rust on the edges. 

Printing papers, on which a very high finish is 
wanted, are often glazed on the super-calender, after 
having been given a good machine finish. The contact 
with the alternating metal and cotton, or paper-covered 
rolls, has the effect of imparting a velvety feel, un- 
obtainable by the passage through the machine 
calenders. 

A little of an alkaline soap, made by dissolving 
white soap in caustic lye, is often added to the pulp 
in the engine, in order to improve the surface. 

When paper is damped before glazing on the super- 
calender, the rolls must be worked at a heat sufficient 
to dry it. The cooler the paper to be damped is made 
the greater* will be the amount of water absorbed, 
without causing the rolls to " bag " when winding on 
the damper, and the more pressure will it bear in 
passing through the rolls. For this reason both tub- 
sized and engine-sized papers should be allowed to 
lie in a cool place for some time before damping. 

To obtain a surface which will not be liable readily 
to go back, the pressure must not be too heavy, nor 
must the rolls be worked with too much heat. It is 



GLAZING. 149 

much better for the appearance of the paper to put 
it through twice than to work heavy pressure, and 
glaze with one passage only. The amount of pressure 
which can be applied without unduly crushing the 
paper depends very much on the stock from which 
it is- made. 

Papers largely composed of straw require a good 
pressure, in order that they may be closed so as to 
avoid the rising before referred to. This is especially 
the case when such papers have been damped. 

Owing to the hard nature of their ultimate fibres, 
wood and straw papers are very liable to become 
wrinkled when damped, and this will be more notice- 
able if they have been hot when put through the 
damper. Should papers consisting wholly, or in large 
proportion, of wood become too dry on the calender 
rolls, they will be very apt to break, owing to their 
hard, brittle nature. 

In glazing highly-finished paper for magazine and 
illustrated work, in which the surface and not the 
appearance is of the first importance, the pressure 
applied in the super-calender is often such as to cause 
all the sheave and gritty matters to show up. 

In glazing high-coloured papers made from coarse 
stock which has been kept long in the engine, very 
heavy pressures are necessary, in order to obtain the 
degree of finish usually imparted to such papers. 
Quite a common pressure for that class of papers is 
about II tons on each end of the calender, while some 



150 PRACTICAL PAPER MAKING. 

of the most recently fitted up calenders are supplied 
with weights equal to 50 tons. 

At all times, but especially when glazing tinted 
papers, the greatest care must be exercised to keep 
the heat of the rolls as uniform as possible, as care- 
lessness in this respect is very often the unsuspected 
cause of the appearance of shades. This applies with 
even greater force to the burnishing calender, as even 
a slight variation of the heat of the burnishing-roll 
will cause shades to appear. 

A good plan to prevent the overheating of the 
burnishing-roll is to let both steam and water into it, 
so that it may be quickly cooled down should the heat 
become too strong. 

In friction glazing, as in super-calendering, the best 
results can be obtained by working with little or no 
pressure, and putting the paper through more fre- 
quently. To keep the burnisher working smoothly, the 
wax should be frequently applied, so that it may not 
dry and crack the paper. Should the paper be too 
damp when glazing or burnishing, it will be liable 
to become blackened. This blackening is sometimes 
attributed to the want of wax on the burnisher, but 
neglect to put wax on the roll, though a very frequent 
cause of cracks, will not, under usual conditions of 
working, be liable to cause it. 

The surface imparted to paper gla'zed in a properly 
constructed plate calender is much more silky than the 
finish obtained on the super-calender. This is due to 



PLATE GLAZING. 151 

the pressure on the plate calender being so much less, 
and thus the original elasticity of the fibres is pre- 
served to a much greater extent. 

This has the effect of making plate-glazed papers 
bulk much better than similar papers finished on the 
supers-calender, and in addition they have a more 
mellow appearance. Great care must be exercised that 
the plates used are free from gritty matters, otherwise 
the papers will be very liable to become indented and 
rendered rough on the surface. 



CHAPTER XII. 

CUTTING.— FINISHING. 

Cutting. — The first thing to be done when preparing 
to start a revolving cutter is to place the roll with 
least breaks — that is, if those to be cut are not free 
from breaks — in the bottom bracket nearest to the 
feeding-rolls. 

The reason why a roll without breaks should be 
put there is that any breaks or cracks on the others 
may be led over the boards and through the rolls 
without the risk of catching and tearing, being sup- 
ported on this under web. As this roll is also the 
guide when setting the circulars, the one put on 
should be as evenly wound as possible. When 
this roll has been put on, and before any of the 
others are lifted into position, the paper should be 
torn perfectly square, and, after folding, put carefully 
into the feeding-rolls. 

The utmost care is necessary that it may not be 
slanted, even in the slightest degree, as should it 
be even an eighth of an inch off the square, the 



REVOLVING CUTTER. 153 

circulars will be set fully an inch off the line ; and if 
the brackets cannot be altered to bring the sheets 
right, there is nothing for it but to shut down and put 
the circulars into line again. 

The number of rolls which can be cut at one time 
depends on the condition of the cross- cutting knife ; 
but even with a sharp knife six rolls of the substance 
of large post 21 lbs. is a heavy filling. 

Should the filling be too heavy, the under sheet 
is very liable to be torn in a peculiar manner, very 
difficult to detect, unless the cutter-man knows where 
to look for it. This tear is usually of a small semi- 
circular shape, somewhat irregular, however, and as 
it is on the under sheet it may run for some time 
before it is noticed. It is torn off just when the cross- 
cutting knife is passing the dead knife, and falls down 
on to the carrying-felt. 

When this tear makes its appearance, which will 
be either when the filling is too heavy or the knife 
too blunt, the best plan is to break off one of the 
rolls, and thus allow the knife to go through the 
remaining sheets without any shock. 

Great care must be exercised, when setting newly- 
sharpened circular knives, not to press them against 
the under knives until the fine wire edge has taken 
on a skin. To bring up this skin, they should be 
gently rubbed with a fine file. A good plan is to 
put a piece of thin copying or tissue paper between 
the block and the knife when setting for the first 



154 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

day or two, and as the edge becomes hardened gradually 
to bring them closer. 

When new the cross-cutting knife needs little 
attention; but the parts not cutting the paper should 
always be kept well oiled, so that there may be no 
attrition as they come in contact with the dead 
knife. 

When letting out the spring nearest the front of 
the cutter, it must be done very cautiously, and 
after doing so the knife should always be driven 
through with the hand, to make sure that it is not 
too far out. Should it be too much sprung it will 
lock into the dead knife and seriously damage both. 
Should the cross-cutting knife miss at any point, 
the portion on each side of it must be rubbed down 
with a file so as to bring them to the same level 
as the point which is missing. 

The feeding-rolls must always be kept free from 
oil, especially the jacket, as should any get on to 
them they will slip over the paper instead of draw- 
ing it in regularly, and cause short and long sheets. 
This may be detected by watching the feed of the 
paper, as if the rolls are slipping it will be very 
noticeably irregular. When oil has got on to them 
a rub with a cloth moistened with turpentine will 
take it off immediately. 

Should the paper be badly cut, it should be closely 
watched between the tube-rolls and the cross-cutting 
knife, and, if any lurch is seen then, the screw of 



SHORT AND LONG SHEETS. 1 55 

the pulley wheel must be looked to, as, if it has 
become loose, it will cause the paper to be unevenly 
cut. The screws of the spur-wheels must also be 
kept tight, or the cutting will be very defective. 
Should the cutting be bad, owing to a backlash on 
any* of the pinions, a piece of clean leather inserted 
between the shaft of the cross-cutting knife and the 
brass at the back of the cutter, and firmly wedged 
down by means of the collar, will remedy it. 
Though it is useless unless the shaft heats a little, 
care must be taken to keep it moistened with oil to 
prevent undue heating. 

When the length of the sheet being cut is 50 
inches and upwards, some difficulty may be ex- 
perienced in keeping the sheets from rushing against 
the revolving frame, owing to the slow revolution 
of the cross-cutting knife compared with the speed 
of the other portions of the cutter. 

To cure this, two of the blade screws should be 
unscrewed, and a long sheet of paper or clean wrapper 
screwed between them opposite to the paper. These 
sheets are allowed to hang like flags, and as they pass 
round against the paper serve to drive down the 
sheets on to the carrying felt. 

When cutting a short sheet of perhaps 14 inches, 
or nearly the length of the fall between the dead 
knife and the felt, the heaving felt is very liable to 
come against it just as the cross-cutting knife is going 
through, and thus both uneven and badly squared 



156 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

sheets are the result. A piece of thick twine stretched 
across the cutter, on the top of the paper, an inch 
or two back from the dead knife, will generally cure 
this ; but it is rather dangerous mending a break 
on the top roll when it is on, as the cutter-man 
must lift the string with his fingers, to allow the 
tail of the paper to pass under. In such a case the 
better plan is to shut and lead it under, when it can 
be done with perfect safety. 

When cutting friction-glazed paper the feeding-rolls 
will not take more than three rolls at a time with 
security, unless the brasses are wedged and firmly 
pressed down at both ends, when six rolls may be cut 
at once and nothing go wrong. The high polish on 
the paper, together with the wax applied at the 
burnisher, causes the middle sheets to slip so much 
that they will often be as much as an inch short, while 
the top and bottom sheets are quite right. 

As there is not usually a guard on the rolls, this 
pressing is not to be recommended, on account of the 
danger when mending breaks. Should even a small 
piece of broke run round the under feeding-roll, the 
size of the sheet being cut will be instantly raised, 
though no harm will result should any run round the 
top roll. 

Should the circular or block knife, running out of 
gearing between those which are cutting, be left slack, 
either the one or the other will be sure to slide along 
the shaft until they nearly meet, making a long straight 



CUTTING BURNISHED PAPERS. 157 

line on the paper, which, though not easy to detect, 
neither plate calenders nor anything else will take out 
again. 

When the circulars are dull, and the machine cutting 
friction-glazed or even ordinary papers with a narrow 
selvage, the knives at the edges will cut the sheets 
very unevenly, which will soon be noticed, as sheets 
cut in this way are generally about a quarter of an inch 
broader than the size. 

The best cure for this is to shut and drive a nail 
into the board between the feeding-rolls and the knives, 
and opposite each circular, which is cutting the bad 
edge, to hang a folded sheet (not more than two plies) 
on to the nail, and then lead it over and underneath 
the board, so that when the cutter is started it will run 
into each circular and hang there, being clasped on the 
nail. 

Should a break on the top roll run over instead of 
between the tube-rolls, when cutting square paper, the 
sheets are liable to be cut off the square, though when 
cutting angle little or no difference is caused. The 
belt which runs over the expanding pulley should always 
be kept tight, as should it be left slack the sheet will rise 
in size from I inch to 4 inches. In fact, from the drags 
which hang on the rolls, upwards, everything must be 
kept tight in order to ensure regular cutting. 

If the feeding-rolls are creasing the paper, the edge 
where the crease runs out should be eased slightly in 
order to put the crease away. Should this be in- 



158 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

effectual, easing the tube-rolls will slacken the strain 
and also help to put the creases away, but when 
altering the tube-rolls care must be taken that the 
square is not altered. Tissue and copying papers are 
most liable to crease, and sometimes the top tube-roll 
has to be taken out altogether in order to prevent 
creasing, though, usually, lifting it about one turn of 
the screw at each side will be sufficient. 

To prevent creasing at the feeding-rolls the top one 
should be lifted, after all the tails are in, and the size 
measured ready for a start, and a long strip of soft felt 
about two inches broad wound round each end and 
made to adhere by means of resin, so that it may not 
come off, but press on the paper above the selvage 
which the end circulars are taking off. Enough felt 
should be put on to admit of the jacket being raised 
about one-sixteenth of an inch above the paper. 

The cutter should not be allowed to run longer than 
two or three minutes without paper if the knives are 
in gearing, because, should they become heated by 
friction, they are very difficult to put right again. For 
the same reason care must be taken that no part of 
the knife outside the breadth of the paper is left hard 
pressed. 

Should the knife be blunt and any part of it pressed 
hard up by means of the springs in order to make it cut, 
the square is very liable to be altered, and while the 
back sheet may be all right the front one will some- 
times be half an inch off the square. This is most 



SINGLE AND DOUBLE DRAW. 159 . 

liable to occur when the centre springs are pressed up, 
and may be remedied by inserting five or six plies of 
wrapper underneath the metal plate at the back of the 
dead knife. This wrapper may either be put in at 
the front or the back, according to whether the square 
is off the one way or the other, and the thickness of 
the plies can be regulated so as to give the distance 
that the sheet requires. 

The number of inches which the carriage requires 
to be moved when altering the draw depends on the 
angle or dip at which the frame is built. When finding 
the square the sheets must always be taken from the felt 
in the one direction and folded in the same way, that it 
may be readily ascertained whether they are over or 
under, should they require altering. 

When changing from the single to the double draw, 
the square, though quite right when running the 
single sheet, will, owing to the slow revolution of the 
cross-cutting knife, be found to be under the size, the 
variation depending on the length of the draw. Should 
the draw have been lengthened the carriage will re- 
quire to be drawn out a little, and when changing back 
to the single draw it will have to be put in again. 

In cutting angles the brackets should be drawn as 
near to the front of the cutter as possible, so that the 
backside sheet will have a shorter distance to travel 
over the boards ; and care must always be taken when 
making, that the papers are not too broad for the cutter, 
as, if so, the points of the sheets will run straight into 



160 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

the frame instead of down the felt. The second tube- 
rolls, worked when cutting angles which come up to 
about forty-five degrees, and sometimes over that, must 
always be perfectly square, or they will draw in the 
paper unevenly. 

When the tube-rolls are not drawing quick enough 
to keep the paper tight, a turn or so of paper wound 
round them will draw it up quite tight. When this 
paper is put on it should be kept about an inch clear 
of each edge, otherwise the rolls are very apt to knock 
small holes or cracks into the sheets. 

If the feeding-rolls have been pressed for burnished 
paper, the blocks must be taken out before cutting 
papers such as cartridges, which are usually finished 
rough, as the hard-pressed jacket would put a glaze 
on that portion which passed under it. The string 
across the dead knife should never be used when the 
draw is fifty inches or upwards, as the slow motion 
of the knife sends the paper over it, and thus makes 
it dangerous for the square. 

When starting a new knife on the English cutter, 
care should be taken to see that it will go through 
without becoming locked ; and with new or newly- 
ground circulars the same precautions should be em- 
ployed as mentioned in connection with the revolving 
cutter. 

Should the feeding-rolls slip, and thus draw the 
paper unequally, a piece of thin paper wound round 
the top roll will make them draw much better. While 



FINISHING. 161 

the " dancer " must not be allowed to fall too far down, 
the paper must not be drawn so tightly as to raise it 
against the platform, or it will be sure to cause a 
break. 

When quickening the speed of the drum by means 
of the screw attached to the arm, in order to bring 
up the name, the belt should be put up the cone a 
little in order to bring up the draw from the reel, 
and thus prevent the " dancer " becoming too much 
drawn up. 

When the cross-cutting knife misses it should be 
raised up a little by means of the screw ; this should 
be done very carefully, in order to avoid the risk of 
bringing it too far up, and thus causing it to grip the 
dead knife. 

When cutting lined paper it may happen that the 
lines do not come exactly parallel when the sheets are 
folded, owing to the dandy not having been set 
perfectly parallel on the machine. 

This may be remedied to a great extent by winding 
thin strips of paper round the "dancer" at the side 
where the lines are farthest ahead. This has the 
effect of drawing the side to which it is put so much 
back as to bring up the side which is farthest off the 
parallel. 

Finishing. — The different stages through which the 

paper passes in the salle are entirely dependent on 

the qualities produced in the mill, and thus the degree 

II 



162 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

of overhauling to which it is subjected varies with the 
requirements of each different mill. As a rule, the 
higher the quality and price of a paper the more 
closely is it overhauled, and, consequently, the greater 
is the proportion of retree laid out. 

During the last year or two the engine-sized machine- 
finished papers have reached to such a degree of per- 
fection that it would almost seem as if eventually the 
better qualities of tub-sized papers would be driven out 
of the market altogether ; and, consequently, the engine- 
sized papers have to be much more closely overhauled 
than was thought necessary several years ago. 



Plate V. 




Fig. 9. — Chemical Wood and Esparto x 130. 




Fig. 10.— Cotton, Linen, Wood, and Esparto x 122. 

[To face page 163. 



CHAPTER XIII. 
MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION OF PAPER. 

Notwithstanding what has been written about the 
reagents necessary to enable the microscopist to 
distinguish the various fibres after they have been 
made into paper, they are of little practical use. The 
reason of this lies in the fact that the groups into 
which the fibres can be separated by means of 
these reagents are those which are most easily dis- 
tinguished without their use. 

The reagent most commonly used is a solution of 
iodine in potassium iodide. Cotton, flax, and hemp 
fibres, when moistened with this reagent, are coloured 
a dull red violet ; esparto, straw, and chemical wood 
fibres are nearly colourless, excepting the brownish- 
yellow tinge of the solution. Unbleached, or imper- 
fectly bleached, wood and jute show this yellow tinge ; 
but, owing to the presence of the incrusting substances, 
it is much more distinct. 

In order to render the colours more distinct, a dilute 

solution of sulphuric acid may be used to moisten the 

163 



164 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

fibres, after they have been in contact with the iodine 
for some time. For the student of paper-making, who 
merely wishes to become acquainted with the physical 
characteristics of the various fibres, and thus be able 
to determine the materials of which the papers which 
may come under his notice are composed, a very good 
beginning may be made with a microscope provided 
with optics magnifying from 80 to IOO times. 

The glass slides and covers used in mounting can 
be had from any chemical dealer, and cost very little ; 
while the teasing needles can easily be made by in- 
serting the thick end of an ordinary needle in a small 
piece of wood, or the handle of a crochet needle, and 
bending the point to the desired angle, after having 
heated it in the gas. 

A small bottle of glycerine, for softening and ren- 
dering the fibres more transparent, should also be 
procured, and a pair of small forceps will be required, 
in order to lift on and off the glass covers. 

Before beginning to examine paper, specimens of the 
different fibres, after they have been reduced to half-, 
stuff, but before treatment in the beater, should be 
mounted, so as to be ready to hand for comparison. 
Suppose the first of these specimens to be prepared 
is that of esparto grass, a small piece of which has 
been obtained from the presse-pdte web. As the ulti- 
mate fibres are not firmly felted together, they yield 
very readily when drawn apart by the needles. 

A small piece should be placed on the slide to be 



MOUNTING STANDARD SPECIMENS. 165 

used, and having been covered with a drop of glycer- 
ine, should be separated into ultimate fibres by means 
of the teasing needles. It is much better to examine 
three or four isolated fibres than a complicated net- 
work, as by doing so the characteristic structural 
details, together with the length and the formation of 
the ends, can be much better seen. 

Papers to be examined should first be boiled for a 
few minutes in a dilute alcoholic solution, in order to 
remove the size coating from the fibres. Even when 
aided by reliable specimens, the work of distinguishing 
the various fibres is at first attended with difficulties 
which can only be overcome by much practice. 

By using dilute colouring solutions of carnation or 
magenta when mounting, the characteristic appearance 
of the upper skin is more distinctly brought out. 
When working with a low power objective, the field 
is enlarged, and thus the whole length of the fibres 
brought into view, with the result that a much better 
idea of the comparative proportions of the different 
fibres is obtained. For this reason, the objective em- 
ployed for ordinary work should not exceed 100 to 150 
diameters. 

The advantage of becoming thoroughly accustomed 
to view the fibres under such a magnification will be 
much appreciated when a higher power is substituted, 
in order to render the structural details of any fibre, or 
group of fibres, more apparent. When changing the 
objectives from a low to a high power, the proportions 



166 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

must always be borne in mind, as fibres which present 
a similarity of appearance, though differing as to length 
and diameter, are, at first sight, apt to be confounded. 

For instance, esparto, especially Spanish, may some- 
times be mistaken for linen, as seen under the lower 
power, owing to its enlarged appearance. If it is 
possible to obtain a little of the pulp just after fur- 
nishing, and before the roll has had time to reduce it, 
and, again, as it is ready to pass over the machine, a 
very good idea of the effect of the treatment can be 
obtained. 

The quickest way to mount such a sample is to 
dilute it with water until it is thin enough to be viewed 
by transmitted light, and then pour a little into a small 
glass live box, when it is immediately ready to be 
examined. Viewed in this way, the fibres are much 
less transparent, owing to the absence of the glycerine, 
and thus the appearance of the external parts is much 
easier noticed. Examined in this way, cotton fibres 
will be seen to be quite opaque, while the transparent 
central canal of linen fibres will be very apparent. 

Cotton fibres consist of opaque, flattened, ribbon-like 
tubes, frequently twisted upon themselves. The side 
walls are thin, while the central canal is large. The 
outer skin is rough and granulated, presenting, when 
dry, a dark, opaque appearance. When moistened 
with glycerine or Canada balsam it loses this dulness 
and becomes transparent. On examining the fibres 
before beating, one end will be seen to taper away at 



■1 



Fig. ii. — Linen, Cotton, and Esparto x 130. 




Fig. 12. — Manilla and Cotton x 122. 



[To face page 166. 



STRUCTURE OF FIBRES. 1 67 

a slight angle to a fine point, while the other takes the 
form of an irregularly flattened knob. 

Linen fibres are long and, like cotton, tubular; but 
the side walls are much thicker and firmer, while the 
central canal, though smaller, is easily distinguished 
by it* transparency, even when no glycerine has been 
used in mounting. They are smaller in diameter than 
cotton fibres. Sometimes linen fibres, notched like a 
bamboo-cane, are met with, though usually the side 
walls are smooth and regular. (See Plate VI., 
Fig. 11.) 

Hemp fibres are somewhat like cotton in that 
they are flattened in the same way and have a large 
diameter; but they are not twisted upon themselves 
in the manner characteristic of cotton fibres. (See 
Plate I., Frontispiece, Fig. 2.) 

Manilla fibres have a larger diameter than hemp, 
and the side walls are well defined, making the central 
canal, which is large, very easily seen. The side walls 
are more uniform than those of the cotton fibres, and 
present a more lustrous appearance when mounted in 
glycerine. (See Plate VI., Fig. 12.) 

Jute fibres have unequally thickened side walls, 
which, however, are smooth externally. The fibres 
are very seldom completely free from incrusting 
matters, which, when dry, obscure the central canal. 

Wood fibres, especially those from pulp prepared by 
the sulphite methods, are transparent. They resemble 
cotton fibres in their flattened, ribbon-like appearance, 



1 68 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

but can easily be distinguished from them by their 
stiff, rigid, wooden-like form. Not infrequently, wood 
fibres, twisted upon themselves like cotton, are met 
with. They are long and of large diameter, while 
those from the pine woods show numerous small 
vessels or dots. When dry the upper skin is rough 
and granulated in appearance; and this is especially 
noticeable in " sulphate " pulp. When mounted in 
glycerine they become very transparent, and it is only 
by carefully gauging the focus that the characteristic 
dots can be brought into view. (See Plate V., Fig. 9.) 

Esparto fibres consist of short, smooth tubes with 
finely tapered ends. The central canal, though small, 
owing to the thickness of the walls, is quite apparent. 
Esparto can easily be detected, though present in a 
small proportion, in a paper, owing to the characteristic 
serrated cuticular cells which are so easily recognised. 
(See Plate V., Fig. 9.) 

The ultimate fibres of straw, though similar in 
appearance to esparto, are smaller both in length and 
diameter, and the ends are more pointed. The rigidity 
and smoothness of the side walls are very apparent. 
The cuticular cells vary in form with the different 
kinds of straw from which the pulp has been prepared. 

Straw pulp also contains small oval-shaped cells, 
which are derived from the soft, pulpy matter of the 
stem, and, when seen, are a sure indication of the 
presence of straw. While most of the fibres are 
smooth and regular, sometimes they will be seen to 



DETECTION OF MECHANICAL WOOD. 169 

present a peculiarly jointed appearance, which serves 
to distinguish them from the smaller esparto fibres. 

The fibres of mechanical wood present a short 
tangled appearance, and are bound together, by means 
of the incrusting substances, into small bundles. The 
presence of these incrusting matters causes them to 
be dark and opaque ; and it is for this reason that 
mechanical wood is used to prevent the transparency 
imparted to papers made from highly bleached sulphite 
pulp. (See Plate III., Fig. 6.) 

The presence of mechanical wood in a paper may 
be detected by means of a solution consisting of equal 
parts of sulphuric and nitric acids, a few drops of 
which will produce brown stains on paper containirag 
mechanical wood. A solution of aniline sulphate 
forms a very good reagent for the detection of mecha- 
nical wood, owing to the deep yellow stain which it 
produces on paper containing it. 

Though the difficulties in the way of making a 
quantitative examination of paper are great, yet to 
the paper-maker who has already become expert in 
distinguishing the various fibres in the finished paper, 
such an examination is quite within the range of 
possibility, providing that he can obtain samples, the 
authentic composition of which is known, from which 
to prepare standard specimens. 

The first and chief difficulty lies in the obtaining of 
such samples ; but should he have access to the beating 
department of the mill, he can, as the result of some 



170 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

little attention and practical knowledge, obtain samples, 
the percentage composition of which is accurate enough 
for all practical purposes. 

A very convenient way of preserving these samples 
is to fill a number of small glass-stoppered bottles with 
the different samples, the percentage composition of 
which is known, taken from the machine breast-box, or 
better, as it settles down between the first and second 
slice. 

When it is desired to mount such stuff, a small drop 
of it should be lifted out by means of a glass tube 
drawn out to a fine point. Before doing so, however, 
care must be taken to shake the bottle vigorously, in 
order that the portion examined may represent the true 
composition of the whole. 

After the drop has been placed on the slide, the 
excess of water should be removed before putting on 
the glass cover, in order that the fibres may not be 
carried out of the field when the cover is pressed down. 
This may be accomplished by carefully sucking it up 
by means of a slip of good blotting-paper cut to a fine 
point, care being taken that none of the fibres are 
disturbed, or made to adhere to the blotting-paper 
when so doing. 

A very good plan is to place two specimens of the 
stuff, or paper, on the same slide, mounting the one in 
glycerine or dilute alcohol, without the addition of a 
colouring agent, while the other is coloured with a 
dilute solution of carnation. If preferred, a drop of 



Plate VII. 




Fig. 13.— Cotton and Pearl Hardening x 123. 



Fig. 14.— China Clay x 122. 

[ To face page 171- 



QUANTITATIVE EXAMINATION OF PAPER. 171 

stuff may be mounted alongside a piece of the finished 
paper, when it will at once be seen whether the action 
of the shake, or the contraction on the drying cylinders, 
has had any effect in altering the distribution of the 
fibres. 

As the knowledge of the composition of the papers 
examined depends for its accuracy on the results 
obtained by comparison with the standard samples, it 
is obvious that, in order to obtain satisfactory results, 
no care must be spared in order to insure that the 
standard preparations may be trustworthy. 

When it is considered that the composition of a 
paper may, through the addition of even a small 
quantity of "broke," reduced by the edge-runner, or, 
it may be, furnished to the potcher with the grass, 
become very complicated, the difficulty of obtaining 
trustworthy samples will be understood. 

The degree of fineness to which the fibres have 
been reduced in the beater must also be taken into 
consideration, as the ultimate fibres of rags and wood 
are, owing to the length, more liable to become cut 
up under the action of the roll than those of esparto 
and straw. The presence of fibres added as " broke " 
is much more easily recognised in papers made from 
long stuff, owing to the greater degree of fineness to 
which they have become reduced, consequent upon 
their having been in contact with the rolls and plates 
so much oftener. 

Viewed microscopically, the various forms of load- 



172 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

ing are seen to be possessed of features sufficiently 
characteristic to make their detection a matter of no 
great difficulty, especially after the microscopist has 
gained a knowledge of these characteristics. The 
finely-divided particles of which barium sulphate is 
composed are seen to differ from those of china clay, 
in that they are mostly wedge-shaped, while the clay 
particles are irregularly rounded in form. 

Pearl hardening is composed of minute needle-shaped 
crystals, the peculiar form of which makes them easily 
recognisable. (See Plate VII., Figs. 13 and 14, and 
Plate VIIL, Figs. 15 and 16.) 




Fig. 15. — Pearl Hardening x 123. 




CHAPTER XIV. 
TESTS FOR INGREDIENTS OF PAPER. 

Animal Size. — The presence of animal size in a paper 
can be detected by means of the reaction with tannic 
acid. A piece of the paper to be tested is torn into 
small fragments and placed in a test-tube. A small 
quantity of distilled water is then poured in, and the 
tube held over the gas for some time in order that 
the boiling may extract the gelatine, and at the same 
time concentrate the solution, so that the reaction may 
be the more easily noticeable. 

When it is considered that the size has been ex- 
tracted the boiling should be stopped, and after cooling 
the tannic acid should be added. If animal size is 
present a flocculent milky precipitate will at once be 
formed, owing to the tannate of gelatine produced 
by the combination of the gelatine with the tannic 
acid. 

The consistency of the precipitate depends on the 
amount of animal size present, papers sized with a 
strong solution of gelatine yielding a thick gelatinous 



174 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

precipitate ; while, should the sizing be weak, a thin 
milky precipitate will result. 

When the reaction is so weak as to be scarcely 
discernible, Millon's reagent will require to be em- 
ployed. This reagent is prepared by dissolving a 
known weight of quicksilver in an equal weight of 
fuming nitric acid, and after cooling adding an equal 
volume of distilled water. 

When paper containing animal size is moistened 
with this solution and brought to a gentle heat over 
the gas flame, a red colour will be produced. This 
colour will vary in intensity according as the sizing of 
the paper has been strong or the reverse. 

Alum. — To test paper for free sulphate of alumina 
half a sheet should be torn into small pieces and boiled 
in hot water until it is reduced to a pulpy state, when 
the contents of the small flask in which the boiling 
has been conducted should be poured on to a filter, 
and the pulpy mass well washed. 

The filtrate should next be boiled for a few minutes 
with a small quantity of ammonium chloride solution, 
together with a slight excess of ammonia, when any 
sulphate of alumina present will be precipitated as a 
finely divided white precipitate. 

Starch. — Starch can be detected by means of the 
characteristic blue colour produced when a drop of 
iodine is placed on a paper to which stanch has been 



TESTS FOR INGREDIENTS. 175 

added. Before the amount of starch present in a paper 
can be ascertained, the size coating must first be 
removed. This is accomplished by boiling the sample 
to be tested in a strong alcoholic solution, acidulated 
with a few drops of hydrochloric acid, until the resin 
has gone into solution. 

The paper is then washed with alcohol, dried, and 
weighed. It is next boiled with a more dilute alcoholic 
solution, also acidulated with hydrochloric acid, until 
all the starch has been dissolved out. The point when 
this is accomplished is determined by means of a 
dilute solution of iodine, with which the paper is 
moistened from time to time, until the characteristic 
blue colour ceases to be produced. 

After washing and drying, the weight is again 
determined, when the difference in the two weighings 
will give the amount of starch present. 

Chlorides. — Should it be suspected that any of the 
chlorides, resulting from the decomposition of the 
bleaching powder solutions, are present in the paper, 
the simplest method of proving their existence is to 
precipitate them by means of silver nitrate solution, 
to which a few drops of pure nitric acid have been 
added. 

To accomplish this the paper to be tested should 
be boiled with a small quantity of distilled water, and, 
after filtering, a few drops of the silver solution added 
to the filtrate. Should chlorides be present a white 



176 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

curdy precipitate will at once separate out, which, when 
exposed to the light, will soon become blackened. 

Engine Size. — The presence of engine size may be 
ascertained by heating small pieces of the paper to 
be tested in a strong alcoholic solution, when the 
resinate of alumina will be partly decomposed. By 
adding a considerable excess of cold water the dissolved 
resin will be precipitated, as it is insoluble in a dilute 
solution of alcohol. 

Schuman's method for the determination of the 
amount of resin consists in heating the paper in a 
dilute solution of caustic soda until the resin is dis- 
solved, and after filtering and washing the paper well, 
adding to the filtrate a sufficient quantity of sulphuric 
acid to decompose the resin soap. The precipitated 
resin is then obtained by pouring the milky solution 
through a weighed filter. 

After washing and drying, the filter containing the 
resin is carefully weighed, and after deducting the 
weight of the filter, as previously determined, the 
weight of resin is found. 

Mineral Substances. — The amount of mineral matters 
present in a sample of paper is ascertained by burning 
a known weight of it in a small platinum crucible, 
and from the weight of the ash calculating the per- 
centage contained in it. 

When pearl hardening is suspected — and it can easily 



TESTS FOR INGREDIENTS. 177 

be detected, owing to the purity of the ash when com- 
pared with the dull colour of china clay — the blow-pipe 
must be used with caution, as it (the ash) is very liable 
to be fused and blown out of the crucible should it be 
vigorously fanned. 

Owing to the reducing action of the carbon, the ash 
from pearl hardening will contain a quantity of its 
weight as calcium sulphite, and should be moistened 
with sulphuric acid and again burned in order to 
convert the sulphite back to sulphate. 

When calculating the percentage of pearl hardening 
carried by the pulp, it must be borne in mind that, as 
the hardening when added to the engine contains 2 
atoms of water, 136 parts of the ash are equal to 172 
parts of the hardening as furnished with the pulp. 



CHAPTER XV. 
RECOVERY OF SODA. 

Incineration. — At first a matter of compulsion, owing 
to the pollution caused by running the spent lye 
from the boilings into the rivers, the incineration 
and recovery of the soda has, under the conditions 
of working made possible by the improved forms of 
roasters now in use, become a source of profit to the 
paper-maker. 

The idea in roasting the spent liquor is to burn up 
the non-cellulose substances which the soda has dis- 
solved from the raw materials, and which are combined 
with it. 

The Porion roaster, owing to the simplicity of its 
construction, and the excellent results that can be 
obtained when it is properly managed, is the one 
most used in this country. As usually constructed, 
it consists of an evaporating chamber, in which the 
lye is concentrated by the heat from the gases on 
their way to the chimney ; a combustion chamber, 

which serves the double purpose of retaining the 

178 



PORION ROASTER. 179 

heat and consuming ( the smoke ; a pan in which the 
incineration is conducted ; and a suitable furnace to 
supply the heat on which the several stages in the 
recovery depend. With this roaster all liquors from 
5° Twaddle can be profitably evaporated. 

The lye, as it comes from the boilers or store 
tanks, enters the evaporating chamber, which is pro- 
vided with rapidly revolving fans, or splashers, as 
they are sometimes termed. These splashers dip 
into the lye, and, as they revolve, throw it up against 
the roof of the chamber in a very fine spray, through 
which the hot fumes from the furnace and pan pass 
on their way to the chimney. This has the effect 
of greatly increasing the evaporating surface, and 
thus liquors entering the chamber at 6° or 7 Twaddle, 
leave it, on their way to the pan, concentrated to 
35° or 40 . 

The greater the concentration of the lye on enter- 
ing the pan, the less water remains to be driven off, 
and thus the roasting can be accomplished with a 
smaller consumption of coal. 

It is the practice in some mills to draw the charge 
of soda from the pan once every twelve hours, and 
where this mode of working is adopted the lye is 
allowed to run from the evaporating chamber to the 
pan in a continuous flow for about seven hours, and 
only shut off about four hours before the time for draw- 
ing. During the time that the charge is burning off 
the soda must be well worked in the pan, so that 



l8o PRACTICAL l'APER-MAKlNG. 

it may be perfectly dry, and of a dull red colour 
when drawn. 

It often happens, especially when much rag lye 
has to be burned, that the liquor becomes much 
reduced in strength, and taxes the energies of the 
roaster-men to the uttermost to get the pan ready 
in time. When this is the case, the damper should 
be opened more than usual, and good fires kept up. 
When, however, the liquor is of the usual strength, 
the damper should be worked as much shut as 
possible consistent with complete combustion. In 
this way the temperature of the combustion and 
evaporating chambers is kept up, and the concentra- 
tion of the lye much more easily effected. 

When burning off, special attention must be paid 
to having the damper well shut, otherwise a con- 
siderable portion of the finest of the soda will be 
carried into the combustion chamber and on to the 
chimney. 

By regulating the roasting so as to draw three 
charges in twenty-four hours, a better yield of soda in 
proportion to the coal consumed can be obtained, as 
by such a method the burning is conducted more 
rapidly, the proportion of soda carried away by the 
draught is much less, and thus the yield is increased. 
Working in this way, 20 cwts. of completely calcined 
soda, containing 45 per cent, total alkali, can be 
obtained with a consumption of 25 cwts. of coal. 

The coal used should be as free from sulphur as 



l.l.Xlll.ll ION. i.",. 

possihlc, as any sulphui | >i « .< 1 1 ( cnmhines with tin 
soda and reduces tin- yield of eaustie in the suhsi 
quenl causticisilig process. While the cake, whi'li 
N.i hi. on the lye in the process of roasting, iiinsl 
not he allowed to hecome hard, it should not he 
h role en up I.,., frequently, 01 grealei difficulty will h<< 
experienced in I < < p 1 1 1 ; - up the heat. 

Afl.ei (hawing, the soda should he loosely laid 
down, in su< h a way that it. may hum out without. 
running together and forming a rake. In ahout thrn 
day. it should he turned over, and in ahout eight 
or nine days will he ready foi the lixivia! ion tanks. 
The length of lime foi which it. is allowed to lie 
generally depends on how soon it is required. 

Lixiviation. The soda dissolving tanks are generally 
three 01 four in numher; and, indeed, to conduct th< 

extraction of the soda in a satisfactory w;iy foui 01 five 
tanks are necessary. The dissolving is roiidiicu-d in 
much the same way as the washing of the grass in the 
steepei tanks. When the soda has heen put in it is 
covered up with water, which has pr< viously heen used 
as a thii'd wafer. 

After the soda has heen covered with this weak 
liquor, pumped from th< weak liquor tank 01 allowed to 
flow from a charge whi< h has hern exhausted add is 
ready to \,< cleaned out, clean water, generally heated, 
though some prefer to use cold, is turned on, which, 
after passing through one, two, or three tanks, a<- 



182 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

cording to the number of tanks employed, rises on to 
the fresh charge, and, passing through it, is run to the 
store tank as a first liquor. 

This extraction may be continued for twenty-four to 
thirty hours, or even longer, according to the system 
adopted and the strength of the recovered soda, and 
the liquor should stand about 72 Twaddle when first 
run off. This strength will gradually become weaker, 
until it reaches 22° Twaddle, when it is turned off, and 
made to run on to a fresh charge, which has been put 
into the tank, cleaned out in the interval. 

After running into this fresh charge for some time it 
is shut off altogether, and steam turned on to boil it 
for ten to twelve hours, and the liquor, after allowing 
sufficient time for settling, run to the weak liquor tank, 
when the mud is lifted out and the fresh charge 
furnished to the tank. 

Another method of extracting the soda is to cover it 
with the liquor taken from a third or fourth boiling, and 
boil it for twelve hours before running off. After 
running off this strong liquor the tank is again filled 
up from a charge boiled for the third time, and then 
boiled for other twelve hours, and the liquor run off to 
the store tank, where it is mixed with the strong liquor. 
If the soda is not yet exhausted another liquor may be 
taken off before allowing the mud to boil for two or 
three days. 

This third liquor may be run to the store tank if 
considered strong enough, and, if not, used to extract a 



LIXIVIATION. 183 

fresh charge. When a fourth liquor is taken off it goes 
to the weak store tank, and is used to cover the fresh 
charges put in. The strong liquor obtained by this 
method will stand about yo° Twaddle, the second about 
15° Twaddle. 

A first and second liquor are run off together every 
day, and the strength of the lye in the store tank is 
maintained about 40 Twaddle. In some mills the 
soda is dissolved in circular iron tanks, divided into 
two compartments by a perforated iron partition. The 
recovered soda is placed in one of the divisions, and 
after being covered up with weak liquor is boiled by 
means of a steam-pipe which reaches almost to the 
bottom of the tank. The agitation is further increased 
by a blast of air drawn in with the steam. The charge 
is boiled until it is quite exhausted, and then another 
quantity is put in, the tank being cleaned out once or 
twice during the week. 

After the non-cellulose matters, extracted from the 
plant substances during the boiling, have been burned 
up in the roaster, the soda, owing to the oxygen and 
carbon which it has taken up during the calcination, 
and prior to that, during the boiling, has become con- 
verted into sodium carbonate. The action of the water 
in the lixiviation tanks has simply separated the 
sodium carbonate from the insoluble impurities ; and 
before the liquor thus obtained can be substituted for 
the caustic soda bought from the chemical manufac- 
turer, it must be converted from the carbonated to the 



1 84 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

caustic state. The following equation shows how that 
chemical change is effected : — 

Carbonate of soda. Lime water. Caustic soda. Carbonate of lime. 

Na 2 C0 3 + CaO + H,0 = 2 NaOH + CaC0 3 

46 + 12 + 4S + 40 + 16 + 2 + 16 = 46 + 32 + 2 + 40 + 12 + 48 

106 + 56 + 18 =80 + 100 

A glance at the figures will show that 56 parts of 
lime are required to convert 106 parts of carbonate 
of soda into the caustic state, and that the amount of 
caustic produced from these quantities does not exceed 
80 parts. In actual practice the yield of caustic soda 
is less than the theoretical quantity, owing to propor- 
tions retained in the lime mud. 

In some mills this causticising process is conducted 
in circular tanks, or boilers, fitted with agitators, to 
ensure the thorough contact of the lime with the liquor 
to be causticised. The liquor from the lixiviation store 
tanks is run into the boiler and generally reduced to 
between 20 and 22° Twaddle. This reduction is ren- 
dered necessary owing to the fact that a strong solution 
of sodium carbonate would react on the caustic first 
formed, and so retard the operation. 

The boiler having been filled to the usual height, 
the steam is turned on, and the lime put into a small 
cage fitted to the side of the boiler in such a position 
that the lime is immersed in the liquor. As the 
reaction proceeds the lime is gradually taken up by 
the carbonic acid of the carbonate of soda to form the 
lime carbonate, left as the sediment in the boiler, while 



CAUSTICISING. 185 

the soda unites with the oxygen and hydrogen of the 
water to form caustic soda. 

To ascertain when the reaction has been completed, 
and all the soda present as carbonate converted into 
caustic, a little of the liquor is lifted out, and, after 
allowing the lime to settle, is treated with a solution 
of equal parts of sulphuric acid and water. 

If there be any effervescence, due to the escape of 
carbonic acid still uncombined with the lime, the 
reaction is not complete. Either the lime added has 
not been sufficient to combine with all the carbonic 
acid present in the carbonate of soda, and more must 
be added, or sufficient time has not been allowed to 
complete the reaction. Should no effervescence take 
place on the addition of the testing solution, all the 
sodium carbonate has been converted into caustic soda. 

When the washing water from the boilers is used 
to bring the liquor to the desired strength, more lime 
will require to be added in order to combine with the 
carbonic acid present in the washings ; and even then 
the caustic liquor will be apt to froth on being tested, 
owing to the presence of uncombined carbonic acid. 
After the reaction is finished the agitator should be 
shut out and the lime allowed to settle before the lye 
is drawn off. 

About an hour is required for this ; and, after the 
lye has been run to the tanks from which the supply 
for the boiler is drawn, the lime mud is again agitated 
and boiled for about an hour, when the liquor obtained, 



1 86 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

after settling, is also run to the store tank. The weak 
liquor drained from the lime mud should be used to 
conduct this second extraction, which should stand 
about 6° to 8° Twaddle. 

Should a third liquor be taken off it is better not 
to boil it, but only to bring it to boiling point, and 
then shut off the steam ; as when boiled for the third 
time the lime mud becomes pasty, and, in addition to 
retaining caustic, is difficult to drain. 

By running up a boiler with the drainings from the 
lime, and allowing it to stand for about twelve to fifteen 
hours, a caustic solution standing about io° Twaddle 
can be obtained. Before settling it should be allowed 
to mix for an hour or so. 

In order to oxidise the sulphur compounds, princi- 
pally the sodium sulphide, which have been formed 
by the action of the sulphur contained in the coal, 
a strong current of air is sometimes blown into the 
boiler during the causticising. In addition to oxidising 
the sodium sulphide to sulphate, it has the effect of 
producing a much more thorough agitation of the lime 
and the soda. 

When the causticising vessel consists of the egg- 
shaped boiler, which is preferred by many paper- 
makers, the agitation is maintained by means of the 
steam (and air, when the air-blast is employed) issuing 
from small holes in an iron pipe laid along the bottom 
of the boiler. Very much better results are said to 
be obtained when using this form of boiler. 



FERRIC OXIDE PROCESS. 187 

Though the aluminate and silicate of soda present 
in the recovered liquor are, to a large extent, decom- 
posed during the causticising process, a considerable 
amount of soda is retained in combination with these 
compounds, and thus rendered unavailable. 

In causticising liquor obtained from the spent lye 
in which straw has been boiled the loss arising from 
this cause is very considerable, owing to the large 
proportion of silica in combination with the soda. It 
is claimed that by treating the recovered liquor with 
bicarbonate of soda, prior to causticising, the aluminate 
and silicate of soda are decomposed, with the result 
that practically the whole of the soda held in combi- 
bination is set free, while the sodium sulphide is also 
decomposed. 

The soda added as bicarbonate is available, and as 
much as 1 1 per cent, of alkali can, it is said, be saved 
by employing this method. The plan recommended 
by the advocates of this system is to boil the liquor 
to which the bicarbonate has been added for a quarter 
or half an hour before adding the usual amount of 
lime. 

In place of causticising by means of lime, ferric oxide 
may be used as a causticising agent. This process 
possesses a distinct advantage over the lime method in 
that the caustic solution is obtained in a concentrated 
form direct from the lixiviation tanks. 

The rationale of the process consists in the expulsion 
of the carbonic acid from the recovered ash when fused 



1 88 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

with ferric oxide. The sodium ferrate thus formed is 
decomposed during the lixiviation with the formation of 
caustic soda solution and ferric oxide, which is thus 
available to causticise a second charge of soda ash. It 
will thus be seen that the ferric oxide, owing to this 
regeneration, is continuously available. 

This process, notwithstanding its advantages, is more 
suited to the needs of the chemical manufacturer than 
to the requirements of the paper-maker. 

Multiple Effects. — During recent years the principle 
of multiple effects, seen in its simplest form in the 
evaporator of the Porion type, has been made the 
basis of several new systems of evaporation. The 
principle of multiple effects, as applied to evaporation, 
is dependent on the fact that the boiling point of a 
liquid is lowered in proportion as the pressure exerted 
on its surface is diminished. 

This is the reason why the temperature required to 
boil water at the top of a hill is less than that found 
necessary at the bottom, where the atmospheric pres- 
sure exerted on its surface is greater than that to 
which it is subjected at the greater height. 

Under the normal atmospheric pressure of 147 lbs. 
per square inch, the temperature at which water boils 
is 212 Fahr. ; and by lowering the pressure in the 
chamber in which the evaporation is conducted, by 
means of a vacuum artificially produced and main- 
tained, a corresponding reduction in the number of 



MULTIPLE EFFECTS. 189 

degrees of heat necessary to effect the conversion of 
the liquid into steam can be effected. 

Thus under a vacuum of 5 inches = 12 lbs. per 
square inch of surface pressure, the temperature at 
which water will boil is 195 Fahr. ; 10 inches vacuum 
represents 185 Fahr., 15 inches 160 Fahr., and at 
20 inches the temperature is reduced to 150 Fahr. 
The efficiency of the multiple effects evaporator is, 
however, largely dependent on another peculiarity 
connected with the boiling of liquids — namely, the 
utilisation of the latent heat contained in the vapour 
given off when water is converted into steam. 

Each pound of water converted into steam at 
atmospheric pressure absorbs 1,146 heat units, but 
about 965 of these units have been absorbed in 
producing the molecular change from water into steam, 
and when the steam is again brought into contact with 
water at a lower temperature, it yields up these latent 
heat units, with the result that the temperature of the 
liquid in contact is raised ; and if, as in the case of 
a vacuum evaporator, the surface pressure be lowered 
in the proper degree, it becomes possible to raise the 
temperature of the liquid by means of the latent heat 
to the boiling-point required under the lowered pressure, 
and again utilise the latent heat of the vapour thus 
produced to raise a further quantity of liquor under 
a still lower pressure to boiling-point. 

In the multiple effects evaporator, the vapour from a 
liquid boiling under normal pressure is made to boil 



190 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

a second portion of the liquid, the pressure upon the 
surface of which has been diminished by means of a 
vacuum pump. By further reducing the resistance of 
the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere a third 
portion of the liquid may be brought to boiling point. 
Thus it will be seen that the number of effects is 
dependent on the vacuum which can be obtained in the 
evaporators. 

In the system known as the Yaryan, the spent lyes 
are made to flow through a system of pipes inclosed 
in an egg-shaped boiler or shell, into which the steam 
for conducting the evaporation is led. As the liquor 
flows through the pipes, it is concentrated by the heat 
from the steam playing round them ; and at the end of 
each effect it is made to flow into a special chamber, 
in which the separation of the concentrated lye and 
the steam produced by the concentration is effected. 

On leaving the separator, the liquor and steam are 
conducted through separate pipes to the next effect ; in 
which the former is, through the agency of the latter, 
still further concentrated. 

In a quadruple-effect evaporator the steam pressure 
is maintained at 20 lbs. per square inch in the first 
effect, by means of steam supplied direct from the 
steam boilers. The steam from the separator of this 
effect enters the second effect at a pressure of 1 1 lbs. 
per square inch, and after effecting the concentration 
passes on to the third effect at a pressure of 5 lbs. 
To carry out the concentration with this pressure a 



Y ARYAN EVAPORATOR. 191 

vacuum of 17 in., equal to about 8| lbs., is maintained. 

In the fourth effect the vacuum is further increased 
to about 24 in. With the apparatus described, lyes 
entering the first effect at from 8° to io° Twaddle are 
concentrated to between 40 and 44 on issuing from 
the last effect. 

Apart altogether from the expense connected with 
the fitting up and upkeep of such a system as the 
Yaryan, it is very doubtful if it can hold its own when 
compared with the evaporator of the Porion type. 
With the latter, liquors standing from 8° to io Twaddle 
can, under the ordinary conditions of working, be con- 
centrated to 40 . 

Another serious drawback connected with the Yaryan 
is the difficulty experienced in cleaning out the tubes. 
The deposit which gathers on the inside of the tubes 
is so extremely hard that it can only be removed by 
means of long and tedious scraping. 

Very good results are said to be obtained from the 
Chapman and Fawcett multiple effect evaporator, which 
is somewhat similar in principle to the Yaryan. It is 
capable of dealing with liquors at from 2° to 4 
Twaddle, and of concentrating them to from 44 
to 46 with economical results. 

In the Gaunt multiple effect evaporator, which is 
largely used in American mills for the evaporation 
of soda liquors from wood pulp boiling, the liquors 
are made to flow over a series of pipes through which 
the steam is conducted, and the liability to choking up, 



192 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

which is such a drawback to the systems in which the 
concentrated liquors flow through the pipes, is thus 
obviated. 

The first effect is usually supplied with live steam 
under pressure, and the steam given off by the liquor 
in contact with the heated tubes is led to the second 
effect, and utilised to further concentrate the liquor 
from which it has been driven off in the first effect. 

As in the Yaryan, the number of effects employed 
depends on the density and volume of the liquors to 
be dealt with, and the fact that it becomes difficult 
to maintain a circulation when the liquor reaches the 
neighbourhood of 40 Fahr. 

The Scott Multiple Effect. — In principle, the Scott 
recovery plant varies little from the other well-known 
types, quadruple effect being the usual form of in- 
stallation, although other numbers of effects are installed 
according to the steam supply available and the volume 
of liquor to be treated. 

The heating surface is arranged in series of 2 in. 
and 4 in. tubes, a number of 2 in. tubes being placed 
round each 4 in. tube, so that the latter may draw 
down from the top of the pan the liquor which has 
been thrown into it by the 2 in. tubes. The number 
of 2 in. tubes is generally about fifty to one 4 in. tube, 
but this varies according to the number of effects. 

The result of this arrangement is that the liquor 
travels so rapidly over the heating surface — while at 



SCOTT MULTIPLE EFFECT. 193 

the same time keeping the tubes full of liquor — that 
deposition on the tubes is reduced to a minimum, and 
they require comparatively little cleaning. 

Other things being equal, this freedom from liability 
to choke up is a very valuable feature, as the 
cleaning and replacing of choked tubes is a very 
considerable item in the cost of upkeep of a multiple 
effect evaporator. 

In comparing the results obtained from different 
forms of evaporators and roasters, the strength and 
uniformity of the lyes are too often overlooked, and 
consequently a false opinion of the merits of the 
systems compared is obtained. For instance, a roaster 
working when only the first liquors and washings are 
evaporated will show much better results than could 
be obtained from the same form of roaster when two 
washings have to be burned. 

Again, when a considerable quantity ot rag lye has 
to be evaporated, especially if it be from the better 
grades, the amount of coal consumed will be much 
larger in proportion to the turnout of soda, than would 
be the case in roasting an equal quantity of lye from 
esparto or straw. 

The Warren Rotary Furnace. — During recent years 
the introduction of the Warren rotary furnace has 
made it possible to effect the incineration of the con- 
centrated liquors more expeditiously, and with greater 
economy, than is possible with the furnace or pan of 

13 



194 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

the Porion type. Its merits were quickly recognised 
in American mills, with the result that it has been 
largely introduced in conjunction with multiple effect 
evaporators. 

The fire-box, which is of the usual type, is so arranged 
that it can be drawn forwards to allow of easy access 
to the furnace proper. 

The furnace consists of a cast iron casing lined 
with firebricks, similar to the rotary kilns used in 
cement manufacture, being conical in shape, with the 
larger end towards the fire-box. The rotary move- 
ment is obtained by means of worm-and-screw gearing, 
which drives the wheels into which work two iron 
rails fixed round the outside of the furnace. 

By a very ingenious arrangement the throat of the 
furnace is protected by a water-jacket, which, however, 
is filled with liquor from the feed tank, and by a 
suitable arrangement of pipes the concentrated liquor 
is driven upwards on becoming heated, and replaced 
by a continuous flow of cooler liquor. The liquor 
already concentrated to about 40 Twaddle is run into 
the end of the furnace farthest from the fire-box, and, 
coming into contact with the flames, is at once ignited, 
and before it has reached the lower end the organic 
matters are completely burnt up, with the result that 
the black ash which drops out in a continuous stream 
from the opening under the protecting jacket is ready 
for the lixiviator. 



CHAPTER XVL 

TESTING OF CHEMICALS.— TESTING WATER FOR 
IMPURITIES. 

Caustic and Recovered Soda. — The amount of actual 
soda (Na 2 0) present in caustic and recovered soda is 
determined by means of the reaction with a solution 
of standard sulphuric acid. This standard or normal 
solution of sulphuric acid may be prepared in the 
following manner. 

Strong sulphuric acid is diluted with water in a 
porcelain basin until the solution stands about 6° 
Twaddle. After the acid and water have been 
thoroughly mixed together, a sufficient quantity is 
withdrawn to fill a 50 c.c. burette to the zero mark. 
To ascertain if this solution is normal ro6 grams of 
pure dried sodium carbonate are dissolved in boiling 
water in a small flask, and coloured with a few drops 
of litmus. The acid solution is then allowed to flow into 
this soda solution until the blue colour is discharged. 

As the acid is being run in, the flask should from 
time to time be shaken with a circular motion so as to 
ensure that the point when the reaction is complete 

19s 



196 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

may be the more quickly determined. When the 
solution in the flask begins to take on a slightly purple 
tinge the flow should be checked until it merely drops 
slowly, and the flask gently shaken until the appearance 
of a faint violet colour shows that the soda originally 
present is neutralised by the acid, when the cock should 
be shut, and the number of c.c. run off carefully noted. 

To ensure that the discharging of the blue colour is 
not due to the carbonic acid present in the soda 
solution, the flask should be placed above a Bunsen 
burner and the contents boiled for a few minutes, when 
in all likelihood the blue colour will be restored, owing 
to the expulsion of carbonic acid. 

More of the acid must then be added, drop by drop, 
until the red colour is permanent after boiling. If the 
solution is normal exactly 20 c.c. will be required to do 
this. Should more be necessary it is too weak, and 
more of the strong acid will require to be added to the 
contents of the basin and vigorously stirred before 
another quantity for testing is withdrawn. 

Should less than 20 c.c. be sufficient to complete the 
reaction, more water will require to be added to bring it 
to the desired strength, which may not be arrived at 
until several testings have been made. For greater 
accuracy 2* 12 grams may be taken, and in that case 
40 c.c. will be required to turn the litmus red 
permanently after boiling. 

When the solution has been brought to the exact 
strength it should be transferred to a large wide- 



TESTING RECOVERED SODA. 197 

mouthed, well-stoppered bottle, which should then be 
labelled " Standard Sulphuric Acid 1 ex. = "03 1 gram 
Na 2 0." 

To carry out the actual test a small quantity — about 
2 grams is a convenient amount — of an average 
sample of the soda to be tested is accurately weighed 
out and boiled with water in a flask until all that is 
soluble is dissolved. When testing recovered soda the 
sample should be reduced to powder, by passing it 
through a small coffee grinder, so that the portion 
weighed out may be as uniform as possible ; and, after 
boiling, the contents of the flask should be poured on 
to a filter, and the insoluble portion well washed, the 
washings being run into the flask containing the filtrate. 

The solution in the flask is then coloured with a 
few drops of litmus, and treated with the standard 
sulphuric acid solution, in the same way as when 
testing the standard acid, until it is turned permanently 
red after boiling. The number of ex. required to 
accomplish this is multiplied by '03 1 ; the result is then 
multiplied by ioo and divided by the weight of soda 
taken, in order to give the percentage of total alkali. 

Example. — 2 grams of recovered soda were accurately 
weighed out and dissolved with water, in a small glass 
flask, until all the soluble portion was extracted. A 
few drops of litmus were added to the clear solution, 
and then the standard acid run in, until the blue colour 
was discharged. 

The contents of the flask were then boiled and the 



198 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

blue colour restored, owing to the expulsion of the 
carbonic acid. The addition of a small quantity of 
the acid solution again discharged the blue colour, 
and the red tint was permanent after boiling for a 
few minutes. Exactly 29 c.c. of the acid had been run 
off; accordingly — 

29 x -031 = -899 x 100 = 89-9 t2 = 44 - 9S per cent. 

By weighing out 3*1 grams of the soda, this calcula- 
tion may be dispensed with, as the number of c.c. 
required indicate the percentage. 

When testing caustic soda for total alkali the 
weighing must be conducted as expeditiously as 
possible, as the soda in the caustic form is highly 
deliquescent. A good plan is to place the piece to be 
weighed in a small glass beaker, the weight of which 
has already been accurately determined ; the increase 
represents the weight of soda taken. 

It is better to select an average sample, which will 
be near the weight usually taken, than to attempt to 
weigh out a stated quantity, as the time taken before 
the weight can be brought to the proper amount 
allows of a considerable absorption, both of moisture 
and carbonic acid, from the surrounding atmosphere. 

As the caustic burns the fingers when handled, a 
small pair of brass forceps or tongs should always be 
used to lift the pieces when weighing. 

Example. — Weight of beaker, 22*35 grams; weight 
of beaker and caustic, 23-80 grams; weight of caustic, 



COMMERCIAL CAUSTIC SODA. 199 

1*45 grams. 32*2 ex. of standard acid were required 
to neutralise completely. 

■9982 x 100 , „ . -. -. 

32'2 x -031 = - = 68 - o4 per cent. Na 2 0. 

The different grades of caustic soda met with in the 
market are classed according to the percentage of actual 
soda — Na 2 — which they contain. The lowest grade 
is designated by the suggestive name of "bottoms," 
and usually contains about 55 per cent, total alkali. 
It is so named, owing to the fact that it is obtained 
from the residue left at the bottom of the pan in which 
the concentration has been conducted, and therefore 
contains a much larger proportion of impurities than 
the other grades. The impurities consist mainly of 
iron, and impart to it a brown colour. 

The two forms of 60 per cent, soda are named cream 
and white respectively, owing to the characteristic 
cream colour of the former. The white caustic is ob- 
tained by prolonging the concentration until all the 
moisture is driven off, and then fusing with nitre, in 
order to remove the impurities which are the source of 
the creamy colour. This concentration has the effect 
of increasing the percentage of soda, and in order to 
bring it back to the desired strength it is treated with 
sodium chloride (common salt). 

The grades which present the greatest freedom from 
impurities, together with the highest percentage of 
total alkali, are those sold as 70 and 77 per cent. ; but 
notwithstanding the high degree of purity and conden- 



200 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

sation arrived at in those grades, they usually contain 
a small portion of their bulk in the carbonated state. 

In all probability the cost of caustic soda will, within 
a comparatively short space of time, be greatly reduced, 
and with it a corresponding reduction in the price of 
bleaching powder will doubtless take place. This may 
be confidently expected, owing to the introduction of 
the electrolytic manufacture of alkali. 

It has been estimated from the results obtained by 
the recently fitted-up plant, in connection with Messrs. 
Holland and Richardson's electrolytic soda process, 
that, worked on a large scale, I ton of caustic soda and 
2\ tons of bleach can be produced at a cost to the 
consumer of about £\^. 

Compared with £9 per ton for bleaching powder and 
about £10 per ton for 70 per cent, caustic, which prices 
are current and likely to remain so under the old 
methods of manufacture, the advantage to the con- 
sumer is enormous. 

Alum. — Before proceeding to determine the amount 
of alumina contained in a sample of alum, the water of 
crystallisation with which it is combined must first 
be driven off. This is accomplished by placing a 
small quantity of the sample in a porcelain basin, and 
evaporating over the water-bath until the weight is 
constant. 

To determine the amount of alumina, about one 
gram of the sample treated as described is dissolved 



TESTING ALUM AND ANTICHLOR. 201 

with hot water in a porcelain dish. A small quantity 
of ammonium chloride solution, together with a slight 
excess of ammonia, is now added, and the whole boiled 
gently until the alumina has been precipitated. The 
contents of the dish are then poured on to a filter and 
welf washed with hot water, after which the precipitate 
is placed in a platinum crucible, which has been 
previously weighed, and heated over the blowpipe 
flame, in order to expel the water still retained. After 
cooling the crucible is again weighed ; the increase 
represents the amount of alumina present in the sample. 
The presence of iron may be detected by treating a 
small quantity of the alum to be tested with an excess of 
pure caustic potash. The alum, or sulphate of alumina, 
is dissolved in hot water, and when brought to boiling 
point the caustic potash is added, and the ebullition 
kept up for a few minutes. Should iron be present it 
will separate out as a brown flocculent precipitate. 

Antichlor. — The actual amount of hyposulphite of 
soda present in the commercial article is determined 
by means of the reaction with a solution of iodine. 
The iodine solution is prepared by dissolving 
127 grams of pure iodine in a small quantity of 
water, in which about 18 grams of potassium iodide 
have already been dissolved. The water must be cold, 
and as soon as all the iodine has gone into solution, 
the flask should be filled to the litre mark. 

As one litre contains 1000 c.c, 1 ex. of a solution 



202 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

prepared in this way is equal to '0248 gram of the 
crystallised hyposulphite of soda, or "0158 gram of 
the anhydrous salt, and therefore the solution is 
said to be deci-normal. In order to render the point 
where the reaction has been completed the more 
easily determined, a small quantity of starch solution 
is usually added to the dissolved hyposulphite before 
running in the iodine solution. The starch solution 
is prepared by dissolving about I gram of powdered 
starch in about 200 c.c. of water, and decanting 
into a small stoppered bottle. 

The addition of a small quantity of glycerine to 
the clear solution thus obtained helps to keep it 
fresh for a greater length of time ; but as it can be 
prepared without difficulty, it is better to make a 
fresh supply each time a test has to be made. 

To carry out the actual testing, 24*8 grams of the 
crystallised hyposulphite are accurately weighed out, 
and having been dissolved in hot water, are trans- 
ferred to a litre flask, which is then filled to the 
mark. After shaking the flask well, IOO c.c. are 
withdrawn, by means of a pipette, and run into a 
small flask, to the contents of which a small quantity 
of the starch solution is then added. From a burette 
already filled with the iodine solution, the dissolved 
hyposulphite in the flask is treated until the charac- 
teristic blue colour, resulting from the action of the 
iodine on the starch, is no longer discharged. 

When this point is reached the iodine has de- 



TESTING BLEACHING POWDER. 203 

composed the whole of the hyposulphite, and is 
now present in excess. When the final point in 
the reaction is nearly reached, the cock of the 
burette should be closed so as to admit of the iodine 
solution entering the flask drop by drop, otherwise 
the actual percentage may be over-estimated. The 
number of c.c. of the iodine required to neutralise the 
hyposulphite indicate the percentage amount of the 
latter present in the sample. 

When testing sodium sulphite, 6*3 grams of the 
anhydrous salt will require to be weighed out, after 
which the operation is conducted as in the case of 
the hyposulphite. 

Bleaching Powder. — The amount of available chlorine 
present in bleaching powder is usually ascertained by 
means of a deci-normal solution of arsenious acid. 
The arsenious acid solution is prepared by dissolving 
4*95 grams of pure sublimed arsenious acid (free from 
arsenic sulphide), to which about 25 grams recrystallised 
sodium carbonate (free from sodium sulphide, sulphite 
or hyposulphite) have been added, by boiling with 
water in a flask, and then diluting with water to I litre. 
As 1 equivalent of arsenious acid is equal to 4 equiva- 
lents of chlorine, I c.c. of this solution is, according to 
the following calculation, equal to -003 5 5 gram chlorine : — 

As 2 3 : As 2 3 : : CI 
x 98 4'95- 35*5 X 4 = 142 = 3-55 grams chlorine. 

Each of the 1000 c.c. contained in the litre thus equals 

•00355 gram chlorine. 



204 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

In order to prevent any alteration in the solution 
through the action of the atmosphere, it should be 
poured into small stoppered bottles and kept corked 
until required. 

To prepare the sample of bleaching powder for test- 
ing; 3*5 5 grams are accurately weighed out, rubbed 
into a thin cream with water in a porcelain mortar, and 
transferred to a 500 c.c. flask, which is then filled to 
the mark. The flask is then well shaken, and 50 c.c. of 
the turbid solution withdrawn, and run into a small 
beaker, which is then placed below the burette, already 
filled to the zero mark with the arsenious acid solution. 

The contents of the beaker are constantly stirred by 
means of a glass rod, while the arsenious acid is 
running in, and from time to time a drop from the 
beaker is lifted out with this rod and placed on a little 
of the potassium iodide and starch solution, which has 
been spread over a porcelain slab. 

So long as any of the hypochlorite remains unde- 
composed by the arsenious acid, a blue stain, owing to 
the chlorine still present setting free the iodine in the 
potassium iodide to combine with the starch, will be 
produced ; but whenever all the oxygen of the hypo- 
chlorite has been taken up by the arsenious acid, and 
the chlorine set free to combine with the calcium as 
calcium chloride, the blue stain will no longer be pro- 
duced. The number of c.c. required to complete the 
reaction represent the percentage of available chlorine 
present in the sample, usually about 35 per cent. 



TESTING LIME MUD. 



205 



The percentage of available chlorine present in the 
bleaching liquor, or in the drainings from the bleaching- 
house presses and tanks, can be determined in the 
same way, as each c.c. of the arsenious acid used equals 
•00355 gram of chlorine, as before stated. 

Should it be suspected that the lime mud contains 
chlorine, a small portion of it should be stirred up with 
water to a fixed specific gravity, and then tested in the 
same way as the bleaching powder. In this way the 
amount of chlorine retained by the mud from different 
makes can be at once determined by comparison. 

Several useful Tables may be given here : — 

Table showing Percentage Amount of Soda (Na 2 0) in Aqueous 
Solutions of various Specific Gravities at I5°C. (Tunnerman). 



Sp. gr. 


Per cent. 


Sp. gr. 


Per cent. 


Sp. gr. 


Per cent. 


Sp. gr. 


Percent. 


1*4285 


30-220 


1-3198 


22-363 


I -2392 


I5-IIO 


1-1042 


7-253 


I "4193 


29-616 


I -3H3 


21*894 


I -2280 


14-500 


I -0948 


6-648 


1-4101 


29-011 


I-3I25 


21758 


1-2178 


I3-90I 


I-0855 


6-044 


1*4011 


28*407 


i'3°53 


21-154 


I -2058 


13-297 


I -0764 


5-440 


I "3923 


27-802 


1 -2982 


20-550 


1-1948 


12-692 


I -0675 


4-835 


I-3836 


27 -200 


1-2912 


I9-945 


1-1841 


I2-088 


I -0587 


4-231 


I-37SI 


26-594 


1 -2843 


I9-34I 


I -1734 


1 1 -484 


I -0500 


3-626 


1-3668 


25-989 


1 -2775 


18-730 


1-1630 


10-879 


1-0414 


3-022 


1-3586 


25385 


1 -2708 


18-132 


I-I528 


10-275 


I -0330 


2-418 


I'3505 


24-780 


1 -2642 


17-528 


IT428 


9-670 


I -0246 


I-8l 3 


1-3426 


24-176 


1-2578 


16923 


1-1330 


9-066 


1-0163 


1-209 


1*3349 


2 3-572 


1-2515 


16-379 


1-1233 


8-462 


i-ooSi 


0-604 


1-3273 j 22-967 


1-2453 


I57I4 


1-1137 


7-857 


1 -0040 


0-302 



PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 



Table showing Percentage Amount of Caustic Soda in Aqueous 
Solutions of various Specific Gravities at I5°C. 



Specific Gravity. 


Per cent. NatiO. 


Specific Gravity. 


Per cent. NaHO. 


1-059 


5 


1-437 


40 


1-115 


10 


I 1-488 


45 


1-170 


15 


1-540 


50 


1-225 


20 


I-59 1 


55 


1-279 


25 


1-643 


60 


1-332 


30 


1-695 


65 


1-384 


35 


1-748 


70 



Table (based on Richter's) showing Percentage Amount of 
Soda (Na 2 0) in Lyes of various Degrees Twaddle. 



Degrees Twaddle. 


Per cent. Na 2 0. 


Degrees Twaddle. 


Per cent. Na 2 0. 


4 


2-07 


44 


20-66 


8 


4'02 


48 


22-58 


12 


5'8 9 


52 


24-47 


16 


769 


56 


26-33 


20 


9'43 


60 


28-16 


24 


Il-IO 


64 


29-96 


28 


12-81 


68 


3167 


32 


14-73 


70 


32-40 


36 


16-73 


72 


33-o8 


40 


18-71 


76 


34'4i 



TESTING WATER. 



207 



Table showing Strength of Solutions of Alum by Specific 
Gravity and Degrees Twaddle at I7 , 5°C. 



Specific Gravity. 


Degrees Twaddle. 


Per cent. 
K 2 A1 2 (S0 4 )4+24H 2 0. 


1-0065 


1-30 


I 


I'OIIO 


2-20 


2 


1-0166 


3'3° 


3 


I -02 18 


4*36 


4 


2-0269 


5-38 


5 


1-0320 


6-40 


6 



To convert degrees Twaddle to specific gravity, 
multiply by 5, add 1000, and divide by 1000. To 
convert specific gravity to degrees Twaddle, multiply 
by 1000, subtract 1000, and divide by 5. 



Testing Water for Impurities. — To detect the presence 
of the salts which cause water to be hard, a little 
white soap, dissolved in alcohol, should be added to 
it. If hard, the water will at once assume a milky 
appearance, while, if it is soft, no change will be 
observed. 

Magnesia may be detected by the white precipitate 
formed when a small quantity of carbonate of ammonia 
and phosphate of soda are added to a portion of the 
water which has been brought to the boiling point. 

Soluble sulphates or free sulphuric acid are tested 
for by adding a small quantity of barium chloride, as, 
should either be present, a precipitate of barium sul- 
phate, insoluble in nitric acid, will at once be formed. 



208 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

Carbonic acid may be detected by the white pre- 
cipitate of carbonate of lime formed when lime water 
is added to the water containing it. 

To detect sulphur compounds a little mercury should 
be put into a bottle containing the water and allowed 
to stand corked up for some time. If there are any 
such compounds present the mercury will have taken 
on a dark colour, and on shaking will assume a silver- 
grey colour. 

The presence of iron in water may be ascertained 
by pouring a few drops of tincture of nutgalls into a 
small quantity of the water contained in a glass vessel. 
Should iron be present a dark grey or black colour 
will be at once produced. The depth of the coloration 
depends on the amount of iron present; the greater 
the quantity contained the more intense is the shade. 

Soluble lime impurities may be detected by the milky 
turbidity produced on the addition of one or two 
crystals of oxalic acid to the water. 



APPENDIX. 



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14 



PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 



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APPENDIX. 



Sizes of Cartridge Papers. 



Foolscap 


. 14 x lS| 


Super Royal 


. 19^x27 


Demy 


. 172 X22£ 


Imperial . 


. 21 x 26 


Royal . 


.19 x 24 


Elephant . 


, 23 x 28 



Sizes of Lined Papers. 



. Expansion 


by 14$ in. 


t> 


„ I5J M 


• • it 


,, 16J „ 


• • !l 


n 20 t » 


• • » 


» I6J „ 



Pinched for 8vo . 
Post for 8vo 
Large Post for 8vo 
Large Post for 4to 
Laid Large Post for 4to 



Various Calculations relating to Weight of Reams and 
Webs. 

I. Given sample of paper, to find weight of web 100 yards 
by 60 inches wide, made to same substance. First find 
square inches in sample, weigh it, and from result obtained 
calculate weight of square inches in web. 

/Cxample. — 4-22" x 2" = 8-44" in sample, which weighs 25-2 grains. 
Square inches in web = 216,000. 

216,000x25-2 644,028 „ .„,. ., 

> j_ = tt>? _ 02-132 lbs. avoir. 

8-44 7000 

II. From sample of paper given find variation in weight ol 
ream of 20" x 30", 480 sheets of which ought to weigh 30 lbs. 

Proceed as in the previous example, finding the final result 
from the square inches in ream. 

Example. — 177*2 square inches in sample, which weighs 13575 
grains, square inches in ream of 20" x 30", 480 sheets, 288,000. 

288,000x135-75 39,096,000 „.,,«. 

— ! JJJ-?= oy ' y ' — = 31-5 lbs. per ream. 

177-2 7000 



212 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 

III. To find weight of ream 20" X30", 480 sheets, equivalent 
in substance to 54-inch web, two yards of which weigh 1 lb. 

2 yards x 36" x 54"=38S8 square inches : 20" x 30" x 480 = 288,000 
square inches in ream ; 

therefore — J— — = 74-07 lbs. per ream of 20" x 30", 480 sheets 
3888 

IV. To find number of reams, of a given size, in web of any 
given number of yards, multiply the yards (in inches) by 
number of sheets in breadth of web ; divide result by the 
draw; then divide number of sheets thus obtained by the 
number of sheets in the ream. 

Example. — Given web 1900 yards 60 inches broad, to find number 
of reams of 155" x 20", 480 sheets. 

1900x36x3x2 = I3238 + 4 g Q _ 27 rms> x t qrs _ 7 sheets# 



Data for ascertaining the Number of Gallons of Caustic 
Liquor required to give the Number of Pounds of Na 2 
necessary for a Boiling. 

To find the factor, multiply the number of gallons per inch 
of tank by '0518 for 60 per cent., "0444 for 70 per cent., and 
•04036 for T] per cent, caustic. 

To find the number of inches necessary to give the desired 
amount of soda, multiply the number of c.c. of standard 
acid required to neutralise 10 c.c. of the soda solution by the 
factor, and divide the pounds of soda required by the result. 

Example. — Capacity of tank = 100 gallons per inch. 

Amount of soda required = 800 lbs., 70 per cent, caustic (Na 2 0). 

100 x "0444 = 4'44 = factor. 

Number of c.c. standard acid required to neutralise 10 c.c. soda 
solution = I2"5. 

12*5 x 4'44 = 55*5 : Soo-j-55'5 == 14*4 = number of inches necessary 
to give 800 lbs. 70 pe cent, caustic. 



APPENDIX. 



213 



Table showing the Strength of Bleaching Powder Solutions, 
based on Lunge and Bachofen's Sp. Gr. Table. 



Degrees Twaddle 
at 15 C. 


Available Chlorine 
in grams per litre. 


Degrees Twaddle 
at 15 C. 


Available Chlorine 
in grams per litre. 


23-10 


71-79 


1 2 OO 


35-8i 


23-00 


7I-50 


II-OO 


32-68 


22-IO 


68-40 


io-oo 


29 60 


22-00 


6800 


9-00 


26-62 


21'20 


65-33 


8-oo 


23-75 


2 TOO 


64-50 


7-00 


2044 


20-00 


61-50 


6-oo 


17-36 


I9CO 


58-40 


500 


14-47 


18-00 


55-i8 


4-00 


11-41 


I7 - 00 


52-27 


3-00 


S- 4 8 


1 6 -oo 


49-96 


2 OO 


5-58 


15-00 


45-7o 


I'OO 


2-71 


14-00 


42-31 


0-50 


1-40 


13-00 


39-10 


000 


trace 



Composition of solution upon which the above table was 
originally founded : — 



Available chlorine 
Chlorine as chloride . 
Chlorine as chlorate . 
Lime . 



72-17 grams per litre. 
6'74 „ ,t 

0-13 .1 u 

65-53 » n 



214 PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING, 

Weights and Measures of the Metric System. 
Weights. 

i Milligram = -ooi gram. 

I Centigram = 'OI „ 

I Decigram = 'I „ 

i Gram = weight of a cubic centimetre of water at 4 C. 

1 Decagram = io-ooo grams. 

1 Hectogram = iocvooo „ 

I Kilogram == iooo-oco „ 

Measures of Capacity. 

I Millilitre = I cubic centimetre, or the measure of I gram of water 

1 Centilitre = 10 cubic centimetres. 

1 Decilitre = 100 „ „ 

1 Litre = 1000 „ „ 

Measures of Length. 

I Millimetre = -ooi metre. 

I Centimetre = -Oi ,, 

1 Decimetre = "i ,, 

I Metre = the ten millionth part of a quarter of the earth's 

meridian. 
I gram = 15*43235 grains; 31-103496 grams — I oz. troy. 
•453593 kilogram = 1 lb. avoir ; 50-802377 kilograms = I cwt. 
I cubic inch = 16-386176 cubic cent.; I cubic foot = 28-315312 cubic 

decimetres ; I gallon = 4-543458 litres. 
I inch = 2-539954 centimetres; I foot = 3-0479449 decimetres. 
I yard = 0-9143835 metre; 1 mile = 1-6093149 kilometre. 



APPENDIX. 



215 



French and English Thermometer Scales. 



Centigrade. 


Fahrenheit. 


Centigrade. 


Fahrenheit. 


(Fahr.) 


(C.) 


(Fahr.) 


O degrees equal 32 degrees. 


55 degrees equal 131 degrees. 


S 




41 „ 


60 


, 140 „ 


10 , 




50 


65 „ 


. 149 


i5 . 




59 » 


7o 


, 158 „ 


20 , 




68 


75 


, 167 „ 


25 




77 


80 „ , 


,176 „ 


30 




, 8'b „ 


85 „ 


. 185 „ 


35 




95 


9° n > 


. 194 ,, 


40 




104 „ 


95 » , 


, 203 „ 


45 




, "3 „ 


100 „ , 


, 2i2waterboils 


5° 




1 I22 » 







To convert degrees Fahrenheit into degrees Centigrade, subtract 32, 
multiply by 5, divide by 9. 

To convert degrees Centigrade into degrees Fahrenheit, multiply 
by 9, divide by 5, and add 32. 

To convert degrees Reaumur into degrees Centigrade, multiply by 5 
and divide by 4. 

To convert degrees Reaumur into degrees Fahrenheit, multiply by 9, 
divide by 4, and add 32. 

To convert degrees Centigrade into degrees Reaumur, multiply by 4 
and divide by 5. 

To convert degrees Fahrenheit into degrees Reaumur, subtract 32, 
multiply by 4, and divide by 9. 

Useful Data. 

To find the cubical contents in gallons of any square or 
rectangular vessel, multiply the length, depth, and breadth 
in feet together, and the result by 6-2355. Should the measure- 
ments be taken in inches, the result will require to be multi 
plied by '003607 in place of 6'2355- 



To find the number of gallons contained in a cylindrical 



2l6 



PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKING. 



vessel, first square the diameter, then multiply by 3-1416; 
divide result by 4 and multiply by depth ; after which, proceed 
as in the case of a square vessel — i.e., multiply by 6-2355 if in 
feet, or by "003607 if in inches. 



To reduce inches to metres, multiply by 




. -02540 


„ centimetres to inches, mult 


ply by 


• -3937- 


„ inches to centimetres „ 




a 


• 2-540. 


„ kilograms to pounds „ 




i) 


. 2-2046. 


„ gallons to litres ,, 




i» 


■ 4-548. 


„ litres to gallons „ 




» 


•22. 


,, pints to cubic centimetres ,, 




„ 


567-936. 


,, grams to grains „ 




t> 


• I5-432. 


„ grains to grams ,, 




n 


. -0648. 


„ ounces to grams „ 




#1 


• 28-349. 



To convert kilograms per square centimetre into pounds per 
square inch, multiply by 14-2247. 

To convert pounds per square inch into kilograms per 
square centimetre, multiply by -0703. 

(From Bayley's "Chemist's Pocket-Book.") 

1 pint equals 1-25 lbs., or 8750-0 grains of water. 

1 gallon of distilled water equals 10 lbs., and measures 
277-274 cubic inches. 

1 lb. Avoir, equals 7000 grains ; 1 lb. Troy equals 5760 
grains ; 1 oz. Troy equals 4^0 grains. 



INDEX. 



ACETIC acid, 21 
Acetate of lime, 22 
Acid, arsenious, deci-normal solu- 
tion of, 203 

— carbonic, 13 

— colours, 76 

— free, in sulphates of alumina, 

86 

— hydrochloric, 13, 27 

— hypochlorous, 21 

— nitric, 169 

— or bi-sulphite processes, 31 

— oxalic, 208 

— sulphuric, 21, 27 

— sulphurous, 32, 34 

Action of atmosphere on cellu- 
lose, 2 ; on mechanical wood 
in paper, 42 

— of bleach on cellulose, 2 ; on 

jute, 14, 36 

— of caustic soda on vegetable 

fibres, 10 

— of cupric hydrate on cellulose, 

2 

Adipo-cellulose, 4 

African esparto, Muller's analysis 

of, 44 
Agalite, 71 
Agitators, 95 
Air blast, 49 
Albumen, ammonium, 90 
Alcohol, dilute, 90, 165 
Alkali processes, 31, 33 



Alkali testing caustic, 195 
Alkaline soap, 148 
Alum, 85 

— crystal, estimation of alumina 

in, 200 

— in sizing, 85, 138 
Alumina, sulphates of, 86 

— use of, in bleaching, 21, 27 

— in paper, testing for, 174 
Ammonia, vanadate of, 32 

— soda, 16 

Ammonium albumen, 90 
Angle cutter, 152 
Angles, cutting, 159 
Aniline colours, 75 

— sulphate of, 169 

Animal size, preparation of, 137 

— testing paper for, 1 73 

— sizing, 138 
Antichlor, 28 
Apron, 100, 102 
Apron-board, 128 
Arsenious acid, 203 
Ash-soda, boiling with, 15 

— in engine size making, 81 
Atmosphere, action of, on cellu- 
lose, 2 ; on mechanical wood 
in paper, 42 



BACK-LASH of vacuum pump,. 
Backwater, 106 



2l8 



INDEX. 



Barium chloride, 69 

— sulphate, 69, 172 
Bark liquor, 75 
Basic colours, 76 
Bast fibres, 5 

Beater, construction of, 59 

— choice of, 62 

— Forbes's patent, 59 

— Marshall's patent, 56 

— Hibbert, 61 

— Hollander, 61 

— plates, 55, 60 

— rolls, 55, 60 
Beaters, intermediate, 55 
Beating, effect of, on sizing, 84 

— free or fast stuff, 52 

— heavy engines, III 

— light engines, 112 

— long stuff, 52, 53 

— short stuff, 53 

— Spanish esparto, 57 

— stuff for bank and loan papers, 

52 ; for chromo and plate 
papers, 53 ; for blotting- 
papers, 59 

— wood, 58 
Beech, 43 
Bells, 134 

Bicarbonate of sodium, 187 
Bichromate of potash, 75 
Birch, 43 

Bisulphite of lime, 33 

— of magnesium, 33 
Bisulphite process, Cross's, 32 ; 

Ekman's, 34 ; Mitscherlich's, 
35 ; Partington's, 35 
Bleach, effect of, on cellulose, 2 

— mixer, 24 

Bleaching, electrolytic, 25 ; Hor- 
mite's process, 26 

— esparto, 49 

— gas, 15 

— house, 27 

— jute, 14 

— liquor, preparation of, 24 

— Lunge's method, 21 

— ozone, 25 

— ■ powder, preparation of, 19, 20 

— rags, 12, 19 

— rationale of, 20, 25 



Bleaching straw, 50, 5 1 

— use of acetic acid in, 21 ; alum 

in, 21, 27 ; steam in, 26; sul- 
phuric acid in, 21, 27 

— wood, 39 

Blitz's sulphide wood-pulp pro- 
cess, 32 
Blotting papers, 59 
Blowing, 120 
Blow-off cock, 34, 39, 47 
Blue, colouring with, 73 

— Paris, 75 

— smalts, 74 

— standard sample of, 72 
Blue-wove, making, 102, 136 
Boilers, revolving, 8 1 

— stationery, 14 
Boiling, rationale of, IO 

— esparto, 46 

— jute, 13 

— rags, 10 

— straw, 50, 51 

— with lime, 12, 13 
Book papers, sizes of, 210 
Boxes, suction, 108 
Breaking in half-stuff, 19 

— at press-roll, 105, 1 13 

— at calenders, 126 
Breast-box, 99 

roll, 107 

Broke, 53, 54 

Brown's patent dandy roll, 1 18 
Burnishing, 150 



CALCINED soda, 180 
Calcium, chloride of, 20 
— chlorate of, 23 

— hypochlorate of, 20 

— sulphate, 69 
Calender, plate-glazing, 150 

— super, 146 
Calenders, machine, 126 
Canada balsam, 166 
Carbonate of lime, 13 

— of magnesium, 34 : sodium, 

207 
Carbonic acid, 13, 88, 1S5 
Carnation, 72, 74i 165 



INDEX. 



219 



Carrying-rolls, 1 29 
Cartridge papers, sizes of, 2IO 
Caseine sizing, 90 
Caustic soda, 10, 44, 45 

— estimation of alkali in, 197 

— data for strength of leys, 212 

— table showing strength of 

leys, 206 
Cau^ticising recovered soda, 184 

— test, 185 

Cellulose, action of atmosphere 
on, 2 ; bleach on, 2 ; solvents 
on, 2 

— composition and chemical 

formula, I 

— of cotton, 5 ; esparto, 5, 6, 46 ; 

flax, 5 ; hemp, 5 ; jute, 5 ; 
Manilla hemp, 5, 6 ; straw, 5, 
7, 50 ; wood (chemical), 5, 6, 
31 ; wood (mechanical), 5> 6 

Celluloses, compound, 3 

Chapman and Faw cett evaporator, 
191 

Chemical and physical character- 
istics of various fibres, 5» 

6,7 

Chemical wood-pulp, 5, 6, 31 

Chemicals, testing, 195 

China clay, 68, 69, 172; action 
in glazing, 68; action in 
sizing, 69 ; preparation for 
the engine, 68 ; properties, 
68 ; retention of, 70 ; selec- 
tion of, 68 

Chloric acid, 27 

Chloride of ammonium, 174 ; cal- 
cium, 20; lime, 20; magne- 
sium, 26 ; silver, 175 ; sodium, 
199 

Chlorides, testing paper for, 175 

Chlorine reaction with jute, 16, 36 

— estimation of, in bleaching 

powder, 203 

— gas, bleaching with, 15, 20 
Chlorus acid, 27 

Circular knives, 153, 160 

Cockling, 124, 143 

Colouring, 7 2 

Commercial soda, grades of, 199 

— examination of, 197 



Composition of woods, 43 

Cooling-roll, 143 

Cork tissue, 4 

Cotton calender rolls, 148 

— coloured, rags, 6 

— fibres, 3 ; physical character- 

istics of, 3 
Couch-roll jacket, 135, 136 

— under, 109 
Cracks, 127 

Cross-cutting knives, 153, 16 1 
Cupric ammonia, action on cellu- 
lose, 2 

Cutter, English, 160 

— revolving angle and square, 

152 
Cutting, 152 

— burnished papers, 156 

— cartridge papers, 160 

— machine, rag, 9 

— tissue papers, 13 
Cylinders, damping, 147 

— drying, 99 

Cuticular tissue of cotton, 4 ; 
esparto, 4, 168; straw, 4, 
168 



DAHL'S sulphate process, 32, 
33, 36 
Damping rolls, 147 
Dandy roll, Brown's patent, 1 18 

— rolls, 115 ; named, 115 
Data, useful, 215, 216 
Deckle scrap, 101 

Deckles, Holloway's patent, IOO 

— old style of, 100 
Determination of alumina in 

alum, 200 ; available chlorine 
in bleaching powder, 203 ; 
percentage of mineral sub- 
stances in paper, 172, 176 ; 
total alkali in sodas, 197 
Draws, changing, 125 

— double and single, 1 59 
Double-crown, 210 

— demy, 210 

— elephant, 2IO 

— foolscap, 2IO 



220 



INDEX. 



Double-crown post, 209 

— pott, 209 
Drier, 142 

Drum, washing, iS, 39 
Drying loft, 145 
Dusting esparto, 45 

— rags, 9 
Dyeing to shade, 78 



EDGE-RUNNER, 54 
Ekman's wood-pulp pro- 
cess, 34 
Elasticity of fibres, II, 58 
Electrolytic bleaching, 25 ; Her- 
mite's process, 26; ozone 
method, 25 

— manufacture of alkali, 200 ; 

bleaching powder, 200 
Engine, beating, 59 

— Forbes's patent beater, 59 

— Marshall's perfecting, 56 

— size, 80; preparation of, 81; 

recipe for neutral resin soap, 
83 ; recipe for white, 83 

— washing and breaking, 17, 18 
Esparto, available cellulose in, 

44 

— bleaching, 49 

— detection of, in paper, 168 

— dusting, 45 

— isolation of cellulose in, 44 

— Muller's analysis of, 44 

— physical characteristics of, 5 

— rationale of boiling, 45 

— steepers, 48 

— summer, 45 

— washing, 48, 49 

— winter, 45 

Estimation of alumina in alum, 
200; antichlor, 201 ; chlorine 
in bleaching powder, 203 ; 
mineral substances in paper, 
176 ; sodas, 197 

Evaporator, Porion's, 188 

— Yaryan's, 190 
Examination, microscopical, of 

paper, 163 



FADING in engines and chests, 
74 
Fast driving, 128 
Fast stuff, 52 
Feeding-rolls, 154, 160 
Felt, dry, 122 

— wet, 122 
Felting, 7, II, 12, 53 

Ferric oxide cansticising process, 

187 
Fibres, cotton, recognition of, by 

microscope, 166 
■ — ■ elasticity of, 53 

— esparto, 168 

— flax or linen, 167 

— hemp, 167 

— jute, 167 

— Manilla, 167 

— physical characteristics of 

various, 5, 6, 7 

— straw, 168 

— wood, chemical, 167 ; mechani- 

cal, 168 
Fibro-vascular bundles, 5 
Filaments, 5 
Finishing, 161 
First pump-box, 1 13 

— press-rolls, 123 
Flax, cellulose of, 4, 5i 6 

— boiling, 13 
Foolscap, 210 

Forbes's patent beater, 59 

Fourdrinier machine, 93 

Free resin, 80 

French and English thermometer 

scales, 215 
— ■ weights and measures, 214 
Friction, glazed paper cutting, 

156 

— glazing, 150 
Froth-killers, III 
Furnace, incinerating, 178 

— Warren rotary, 193 



GAS, bleaching with chlorine, 
15, 20 
Gaunt evaporator, 191 
Glass covers, 164. 
— slides, 164 



INDEX. 



221 



Glazing friction, 150 

— plate, 150 
Glycerine, 164 
Grass, esparto, 44 

— knots, 98 
Greens, colouring, 75 
Ground wood, 41 
Guide-roll, 130, 133 
Guiding-tapes, 144 



HALF-STUFF, breaking in, 
19 
Hard-boiled grass, 47 

— water in sizing, 87 

Hemp fibres, physical character- 
istics of, 6 

— Manilla, 6, 59 

Hermite's bleaching process, 26 

Hibbert beater, 61 

High pressures, effect of, in boiling, 

46; in boiling wood, 33 
Hollander beater, 61 
Holloway's deckles, 100 
Hydrate of soda, 10, 44, 45 
Hydrochloric acid, 13, 27 
Hydrometer, Twaddle's, 207 
Hypochlorite of calcium, 20 
Hypochlorous acid, 20 
Hyposulphite of soda, 28 



IMPERIAL, 210 
Incinerating furnace, 178 
Iodide of potassium, 30 

— and starch test, 30 

Iodine, deci-normal solution, 201 

— reaction with cellulose, 2, 3, 

163 
Iron, free, test for, in alum cake, 
201 

— use of, in colouring, 75 
Irregular weight, 93 
Isolation of cellulose, 3 



JUTE fibres, bleaching, 14, 22 
— boiling, 13 

— physical characteristics, 4, 6 

— reaction with chlorine, 16, 36 



KAOLIN, 68 
— preparation for the 
engine, 68 

— properties of, 68 
Killing black threads, 23 
Knife, cross-cutting, 153, 161 

— doctor, III 

Knives, circular, 153, 160 
Knots, grass, 46, 57 

— strainer, 98 
Knotter, 129 

Kollergang " broke," 53, 54 
Kraft brown papers, 37 



LAID paper, 113 
— dandy-rolls, 1 15; Brown's 
patent, 118 
Lead, nitrate of, 75 
Leys, table showing strength of, 

206 
Lignin, 3 

Ligno-cellulose, 4, 31, 50 
Lime, boiling with, 12, 13 
■ — bisulphite of, 35 

— carbonate of, 13 

— hypochlorite of, 20 

— hyposulphite of, 201 

— milk of, 15 

— mud, 25 

— removal of, from hides, 137 

— salts from bleaching solution, 

24, 87 

— solutions of, for boiling with, 

J 3 

— sulphates of, 87 
Lime tree, 43 

Linen fibres, characteristics of, 6 ; 
recognition of, by microscope, 
167 

— rag papers, sizing and drying 

of, 142 
Liquor, bleaching, preparation of, 
24; uniformity of, 23 

— spent, recovery of soda from, 

178 
Litmus solution, 195 
Lixiviation, 181 

— methods of conducting, 182, 

183 



INDEX. 



Lixiviation tanks, 181 
Loading, 67 

— agalite as, 71 

— barium chloride as, 71 

— barium sulphate as, 69, 172 

— China clay as, 68, 69 

— chromo and plate papers, 69 

— mechanical wood as, 42 

— printing papers, 67 
Long measure, French, 214 

— stuff, 53 

— wires, 105 

Lunge's bleaching process, 21 



MACHINE, centrifugal, 16 
— cylinders, effect on 
sizing of, 89 

— English cutting, 160 

— Fourdrinier, management of, 

93 

— presse-pate, 39, 46, 51 

— rag cutting, 9 

— revolving cutting, 152 

— willowing and dusting, 8, 45 
Machine wire, putting on and 

starting, 129 
Magnesia, carbonate of, 87 

— sulphate of, 87 
Magnesium, bi-sulphite of, 33, 34 

— chloride of, 26 
Making bank papers, 54, 55 

— cartridge papers, 97, 134 

— chromo papers, 55 

— loan papers, 54 

— plate papers, 5 

— web papers, 126 

— yellow wove papers, 102 
Manganese, peroxide of, 16 
Manilla, physical characteristics 

of, 5 

— recognition of, by microscope, 

167 
Marshall's perfecting engine, 56 
Mechanical wood-pulp, 41 ; action 
of atmosphere on, 42 ; load- 
ing with, 42 ; preparation of, 
41 ; recognition of, in paper, 
i6q 



Method, Hermite's, of bleaching,. 
26 

— Lunge's, of bleaching, 21 
Metric system of weights and 

measures, 214 
Microscope, recognition of cotton 
fibres, by means of, 166; 
china clay, by means of, 172 ; 
esparto fibres, by means of,. 
168; flax fibres, by means of, 
167; hemp fibres, by means . 
of, 167 ; jute fibres, by means 
of, 167 ; Manilla fibres, by 
means of, 167; pearl harden- 
ing, by means of, 172; straw 
fibres, by means of, 168 j 
terra-alba, by means of, 172 ; 
wood fibres, by means of, 
167, 168 

— suitable objectives for, 164 
Microscopical examination of 

fibres, 163 
Mid-feather, 18 
Milk of lime, 35 
Milk sizing, 90 

Mitscherlich's " slow " process, 35. 
Multiple effects, 188 



NASCENT oxygen, 20 
Nitrate of lead, 75 
Nitric acid, 169 
Nitro-sulphuric acid, 169 
Non-cellulose, 3, 14, 22, 35, 44, 46 



OIL of vitriol, 127 
— sperm, 148 
Overhauling, 164 
Oxidisation, prevention of, 33 
Oxy-cellulose, 2, 27 
Ozone bleaching, 25 



PACKING, on pulleys, 124 
Pan, evaporating, 179 
Paper, bank, 52 



INDEX. 



223 



Paper, blotting, stuff for, 59 

— blue, making, 136 

— broke, 53, 54 

— chromo, stuff for, 53» 55 

— cutting tissue, 157 

— effect of straw fibres in, 51 

— glazing coloured, 150; straw, 

149 ; wood, 149 
— • green colouring of, 75 

— machine, Fourdrinier, 93 

— plate, stuff for, 55 

— printing, glazing of, 148 

— sizes of, 209, 2IO 

— soft-sized, 58, no 

— testing, for animal size, 173, 

174; alum, 174; chlorides, 
175; engine size, 176; 
mineral substances, 176 

— toned, 75 

— tub-sizing, 139, 140, 141 
Paris blue, 75 

Partington's wood-pulp process, 

35 
Pearl hardening, 69, 172, 177 

Pectic acid, 23 

Pecto-cellulose, 3, 46, 50 

Perfecting engine, Marshall's, 56, 

139 

Peroxide of manganese, 16 
Physical characteristics of cellu- 
lose, 1,2; of various fibres, 
5>6, 7 
Picking esparto, 45 

— couch-roll jacket, 136 

— wet rags, 17 
Pine, 43 

Plant structures, 3 
Plate glazing, 1 50 
Poplar, 43 

— pulp, 4° 

Porion's evaporator, 188 

— roaster, 178 
Potash caustic, 201 
Potassium iodide, 23, 30 
Potcher, 39 

Preliminary treatment of wood, 
32; esparto, 45,46 

Preparation of animal size, 137 ; 
bleaching liquor, 24 ; bleach- 
ing powder, 19; breach 



test, 203; causticising test,. 
185 ; normal sulphuric acid, 

195 

Presse-pate, 39, 46, 51 
Press-rolls, breaking at, 105, 1 13 

— first, 123 

— second, 123 

Pressure in boiling, 33 ; glazing, 

149 ; evaporation, 188 
Printing paper, glazing of, 148 
Process, Blitz's, 32 

— acid, bisulphite, for wood,. 

33 

— alkali, for wood, 31, 33 

— chemical, for wood, 32, 33 

— Cross's, 32 

— Dahl's, 32, 33, 36 

— Ekman's, 34 

— Kermite's, 26 

— Lunge's, 21 

— mechanical, for wood, 41, 42 

— Mitscherlich's, 35 

— Partington's, 35 

— sulphate, for wood, 32, 33,, 

36 _ 

— sulphide, for wood, 32 

— sulphite, 33, 34, 35 

— Watt and Burgess's, 33 
Pulp, wood, 31 

— straw, 50, 51 

— sulphate, 32, 33, 36 

— sulphite, 33, 34, 35 
Pumps, stuff, 95 

— vacuum, 108 



RAG cutting machine, 9 
Rags, beating, 54 
— ■ bleaching, 19 

— boiling, 10 

— breaking, 18 

— grading and dusting, 8 
Raised seam, 127, 134 
Recognition of fibres by the 

microscope, 163, 169 
Recovery of soda, 178 
Reeling at the sizer, 141 
Resinate of alumina, 80, 83 
Resin, free, theory, 80 



224 



INDEX. 



Resin size, preparation of, 81 ; 
recipes for, 83 

— soap, 68, 83 

— spots, 84 
Retting, 4 
Revolving boilers, 14 

— cutter, 152 

— strainer, 96 
Roll, beater, 55, 60 

— breaker, 19 

— breast, 107 

— carrying, 129 

— couch, 136 

— stent, 132 
Rolls, calender, 148 

— cotton covered, 148 

— dry-felt, 121 

— hard, on edges of web, 100, 

101 

— wet-felt, 130 
Ropes, 6 
Royal, 209, 210 
Rust spots, 60 



SAND TRAP, 96 
Save-all, 108 
Scandinavian mills, produce of, 

37 
Scotch wood-pulp process, 39 
Scott multiple effect, 192 
Screens, 42 
Second press-felt, 123 

— press-roll, 123 

Setting circular knives, 153, 160 
Settling of stuff on machine wire, 

53 
Shake, 58, 107 
Sheave, 149 
Size, animal, preparation of, 137 

— engine, 68 

Sizes of book papers, 210; cart- 
ridge papers, 21 1; printing 
papers, 210; writing papers, 
209 

Sizing, animal, or tub, 139 

— caseine, 90 

— engine, 80 
Smalts, 74 



Smoothing-rolls, 125 
Soap, in sizing, 138 

— resin, 80, 83 

Soda, aluminate of, 187 

— ash, 59 

— calcined, 180 

— carbonate of, 207 

— caustic, testing, 197 

— hydrate of, 36 

— hyposulphite of, testing, 201 

— process, 40 

— recovery of, 178 

— silicate of, 187 

— sulphate of, 36 ; testing, 203 

— sulphide of, 36 

— table showing amount of, in 

solutions of various densities, 
206, 207 
Sodium chloride, 199 

— resinate, 86 
Soft-sized papers, no 
Solvents, action on cellulose, 2 
Sorting esparto, 46 

— rags, 10 

Spangling or glistening, 143 
Spanish esparto, analysis of, 44 
Spent liquors, recovery of, 178 
Standard microscopical speci- 
mens, 170; shade of blue, 
72 ; carnation, 72 

— sulphuric acid, preparation of, 

195 
Starch, 71 

— detection of, in paper ; 175 

— paste, 202 

Steam, use of, in bleaching, 20, 

50 
Strainer, 96 

— plates, 97 

— revolving, 96 
Straining china clay, 68 
— ■ pulp, 96, 97 

■ — starch, 72 

— terra-alba (barium sulphate), 

70 

— ultramarine, 73 
Straw, bleaching, 51 

— boiling, 50 

— physical characteristics of, 5 
Structures, plant, 3 



INDEX. 



225 



Stuff chests, 95 

— fast, 52, 55 

— free, 52, 53, 103 

— long, 53-55 

— short, 53 

— soft, 55, 104 

Sulphate of alumina, 86; aniline, 
169 ; lime, 87 ; magnesia, 87 ; 
soda, 36 

— wood-pulp, 168 ; process, 36 
Sulphide of soda, 186 
Sulphite of soda, 29 

— processes, 32 

— pulp, 167 

Sulphur impurities in water, 208 ; 

coal, 180 
Sulphuric acid, 21 
Sulphurous acid, 32, 33; gas, 33, 

34 
Super-calender, 148 



TABLE of French and English 
thermometer scales, 215 
— showing amount of caustic 
soda in leys of various den- 
sities, 206 ; amount of soda 
in leys of various densities, 
206, 207 ; composition of es- 
parto, 44 ; composition of 
straw, 51; equivalent weights 
and sizes of printing papers, 
210; equivalent weights and 
sizes of writing-papers, 209 ; 
percentage of alum in solu- 
tions of various specific 
gravities, 207 ; strength of 
bleaching-powder solutions, 
213 

— sand, 96 

Tables of metric system, 214 
Terra-alba (barium sulphate), 69 
Testing alum, 200 

— antichlor, 201 

Testing bleaching powder, 203 

— caustic soda, 197 

— hyposulphite of soda, 201 

— paper for alum, 174; animal 

size, 173 ; chlorides, 175 ; 



engine size, 176; mechanical 
wood, 169 ; mineral sub- 
stances, 176 
Testing recovered soda, 197 

— sulphite of soda, 203 

— ultramarine, 73 

— water for impurities, 207 ; 

hardness, 207 
Thermometer scales, French and 

English, 215 
Thread, 4 
Toned paper, 75 
Treatment of esparto, 44 ; jute, 

14; rags, 8, 18; straw, 50; 

wood (chemical), 31 ; wood 

(mechanical), 41 
Tub sizing, 139 
Turpentine, 136 
Twaddle's hydrometer, conversion 

of degrees into specific 

gravity, 207 



ULTRAMARINE, acid-re- 
sisting power of, 73 
— colouring power of, 73 
— ■ fading in engines and chests, 

74 
— standard shade of, 72 
Unsized papers, 58 



VACUUM pumps, 108 
Vanadate of ammonia, 32 
Vanilline, 2 
Vitriol, 127 
Vulcanite, 108 



WARREN rotary furnace, 193 
Washing drum, 17 

— engine, 17 

— esparto, 48, 49 

— rags, 17 

— straw, 5 1 

— wood, 39 
Wash-roll, IOQ 

15 



226 



INDEX. 



Water, hard, 87 ; testing, for 

impurities, 207 
Water-marking, 117 
Watt and Burgess's process, 33 
Wax, 150 
Webs, making, 1 26 
Weights and measures of metric 

system, 214 
Wet picking, 17 
Wire, length of, 105 
Wood, acid treatment of, 31 

— fibres, characteristics of, 5, 7 

— lime, 43 

— pulp, chemical, 5, 7, 58 ; me- 

chanical, 41 

— soda, 33 

— sulphate, 168 



Wood, sulphite, 167 
Woods, composition of, 43 
Wiirster and Zugler's experi- 
ments with rags, 12 
Wiirster's theory of sizing, 80 



Y ARYAN evaporator, 190 
Yellow-wove, making, 1 02 
Yield of cellulose from esparto, 
44; straw, 51 ; wood, 33, 35 



UGLER and Wiirster's ex- 
r periments with rags, 12 



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THE MECHANICAL HANDLING OF MATERIAL. 

A Treatise on the Handling of Material, such as Coal, Ore, Timber, etc., 
by Automatic or Semi-automatic Machinery, together with the Various 
Accessories used in the Manipulation of such Plant, and Dealing fully 
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HOISTING MACHINERY. 

An Elementary Treatise on. Including the Elements of Crane Con- 
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AERIAL OR WIRE=ROPE TRAMWAYS. 

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TOOLS FOR ENGINEERS AND WOODWORKERS. 

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ENGINEERS' TURNING IN PRINCIPLE & PRACTICE. 

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THE MECHANICAL ENGINEERS' REFERENCE BOOK. 

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THE WORKS' MANAGER'S HANDBOOK. 

Comprising Modern Rules, Tables, and Data. For Engineers, Mill- 
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STEAM BOILER CONSTRUCTION. 

A Practical Handbook for Engineers, Boiler-makers, and Steam Users. 
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Contents: — Heat, Radiation, and Conduction, Non-conductin° 
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PLATING AND BOILER MAKING. 

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A TREATISE ON STEAM BOILERS. 

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BOILER AND FACTORY CHIMNEYS. 

Their Draught-Power and Stability. With a chapter on Lightning Con- 
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Steam Boilers," etc. 12mo, cloth $1.50 

BOILERMAKER'S ASSISTANT 

In Drawing, Templating, and Calculating Boiler Work, etc. By J. 
Courtney, Practical Boilermaker. Edited by D. K. Clark, C.E. 
Seventh Edition. 12mo, cloth 80 

BOILERMAKER'S READY RECKONER. 

With Examples of Practical Geometry and Templating for the Use of 
Platers, Smiths, and Riveters. By John Courtney. Edited by D. 
K. Clark, M.Inst.C.E. Crown 8vo, cloth $1.60 

BOILERMAKER'S READY RECKONER & ASSISTANT. 

With Examples of Practical Geometry and Templating for the Use of 
Platers, Smiths, and Riveters. By John Courtney. Edited by D. K. 
Clark, M.Inst.C.E. Fifth Edition, 480 pp., with 140 Illustrations. 
Fcap. 8vo, half-bound $3.00 

*** This Work consists of the two previous-mentioned volumes, "Boiler- 
maker's Assistant" and "Boilermaker's Ready Reckoner," bound 
together in One Volume, 



MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, &»e. 5 

STEAM BOILERS. 

Their Construction and Management. By R. Armstrong, C.E. Illus- 
trated. Crown 8vo, cloth gO 

THE PRACTICAL ENGINEER'S HANDBOOK. 

Comprising a Treatise on Modern Engines and Boilers; Marine, Loco- 
motive, and Stationary. And containing a large collection of Rules and 
Practical Data relating to Recent Practice in Designing and Construct- 
ing ail kinds of Engines, Boilers, and other Engineering Work. The 
whole constituting a comprehensive Key to the Board of Trade and 
other Examinations for Certificates of Competency in Modern Mechan- 
icart£ngineering. By Walter S. Hutton, Civil and Mechanical En- 
gineer, Author of "The Works' Manager's Handbook for Engineers," 
&c. With upwards of 420 Illustrations. Sixth edition, Revised and 

Enlarged. Medium 8vo, nearly 560 pp., strongly bound $7.00 

Cr^~ This Work is designed as a companion to the Author's "Works' 
Manager's Handbook." It possesses many new and original features, and 
contains, like its predecessor, a quantity of matter not originally intended for 
publication, but collected by the Author for his own use in the construction of a 
great variety of Modern Engineering Work. 

The information is given in a condensed and concise form, and is illus- 
trated by upwards tf 420 Engravings; and comprises a quantity of tabulated 
matter of great value to all engaged in designing, constructing, or estimating for 
Engines, Boilers, and other Engineering Work. 

TEXT-BOOK ON THE STEAM ENGINE. 

With a Supplement on Gas Engines and Part II. on Heat Engines 
By T. M. Goodeve, M.A., Barrister-at-Law, Professor of Mechanics at 
the Royal College of Science, London; Author of "The Principles of 
Mechanics," "The Elements of Mechanism," &c. Fourteenth Edition. 

Crown 8vo, cloth $2.00 

"Professor Goodeve has given us a treatise on the steam engine which will 

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A HANDBOOK ON THE STEAM ENGINE. 

With especial Reference to Small and Medium-sized Engines. For the 
Use of Engine Makers, Mechanical Draughtsmen, Engineering Students, 
and users of Steam Power. By Herman Haeder, C.E. Translated 
from the German, with additions and alterations, by H. H. P. Powles, 
A.M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E. Third Edition, Revised. With nearly 1,100 

Illustrations. 12mo, cloth $3.00 

Summary of Contents: — Introduction. — Types of Steam Engines. — 
Details of Steam Engines. — Governors. — Valve Gears. — Condensers, 
Air-Pumps, and Feed-Pumps. — Examples of Engines of Continental 
Make, from Actual Practice. — Particulars of Engines by English 
Makers. — Compound Engines. — Indicator and Indicator Diagrams. — 
Calculations for Power and Steam Consumption. — Effect of Inertia 
on Reciprocating Parts of Engines. — Friction Brake Dynamometer — 
Sundry Details. — Boilers. — Index. 

" There can be no question as to its value. We cordially commend it 
to all concerned in the design and construction of the steam engine." — 
Mechanical World. 

THE PORTABLE ENGINE. 

A Practical Manual on its Construction and Management, for the use 
of Owners and Users of Steam Engines generally. By William Dyson 

Wansbrough. 12mo, cloth $1.50 

" This is a work of value to those who use steam machinery. . . . Should 

be read by every one who has a steam engine, on a farm or elsewhere." — 

Mark Lane Express. 



6 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &• SON'S CATALOGUE. 
THE STEAM ENGINE. 

A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of, with Rules and Examples 
tor Practical Men. By T. Bakes, C.E. 12mo, cloth (j(> 

"Teems with scientific information with reference to the steam-engine." — 
Design and Work. 

THE STEAM ENGINE. 

For the use of Beginners. By Dr. Labdner. 12mo, cloth. . . # g0 

LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE DRIVING. 

A Practical Manual for Engineers in Charge of Locomotive Engines. 
By Michael Reynolds, M.S.E. Twelfth Edition. 12mo, cloth 

boards $2.00 

' ' We can confidently recommend the book, not only to the practical driver, 

but to every one who takes an interest in the performance of locomotive 

engines." — The Engineer. 

THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. 

The Autobiography of an Old Locomotive Engine. By Robert 
Weatherburn, M.I.M.E. With Illustrations and Portraits of George 
and Robert Stephenson. 12mo, cloth $1.00 

THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE AND ITS DEVELOPMENT. 

A Popular Treatise on the Gradual Improvements made in Railway 
Engines between 1803 and 1903. By Clement E. Stretton, C.E. 

Sixth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 12mo, cloth $2.00 

"Students of railway history and all who are interested in the evolution 

of the modern locomotive will find much to attract and entertain in this 

volume." — The Times. 

THE MODEL LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER, 

Fireman, and Engine-Boy. Comprising a Historical Notice of the 
Pioneer Locomotive Engines and their Inventors. By Michael Reyn- 
olds. Second Edition, with Revised Appendix. 12mo, cloth. $2.00 
"We should be glad to see this book in the possession of every one in the 

kingdom who has ever laid, or is to lay, hands on a locomotive engine." — 

Iron. 

LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES. 

A Rudimentary Treatise on. By G. D. Dempsey, C.E. With large 
Additions treating of the Modern Locomotive, by D. K. Clark, 

M.Inst.C.E. With Illustrations. 12mo, cloth $.120 

"A model of what an elementary technical book should be." — Academy. 

CONTINUOUS RAILWAV BRAKES. 

A Practical Treatise on the several Systems in Use in the United King- 
dom; their Construction and Performance. By M. Reynolds. 8vo, 
cloth $3.50 

ENGINE=DRIVING LIFE. 

Stirring Adventures and Incidents in the Lives of Locomotive Engine- 
Drivers. By Michael Reynolds. Third Edition. 12mo, cloth. .60 

STATIONARY ENGINE DRIVING. 

A Practical Manual for Engineers in Charge of Stationary Engines. By 
Michael Reynolds, M.S.E. Seventh Edition. 12mo, cloth boards. 

$2.00 

THE CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF STATIONARY 

ENGINES. 

A Practical Handbook for Men-in-charge. By C. Hurst. 12mo. ,50 



MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, &c. 7 

THE ENGINEMAN'S POCKET COMPANION 

and Practical Educator for Enginemen, Boiler Attendants, and Me- 
chanics. By Michael Reynolds. With 45 Illustrations and numer- 
ous Diagrams. Fifth Edition. Royal 18mo, strongly bound for 

Pocket wear $1.50 

"A most meritorious work, giving in a succinct and practical form all the 

information an engine-minder, desirous of mastering the scientific principles 

of his daily calling, would require." — The Miller. 

THE SAFE USE OF STEAM. 

Containing Rules for Unprofessional Steam Users. By an Engineer. 

Eighth Edition. Sewed ,25 

"If steam -users would but learn this little book by heart, boiler explo- 
sions would become sensations by their rarity." — English Mechanic. 

STEAM AND MACHINERY MANAGEMENT. 

A Guide to the Arrangement and Economical Management of Machin- 
ery, with Hints on Construction and Selection. By M. Powis Bale, 
M.Inst.M.E. 12mo, cloth $1.00 

GAS AND OIL ENGINE MANAGEMENT. 

A Practical Guide for Users and Attendants, being Notes on Selection, 
Construction, and Management. By M. Powis Bale, M.Inst.C.E., 
M.I.Mech.E. Author of "Woodworking Machinery," &c. 12mo, 
doth $1.50 

ON GAS ENGINES. 

With Appendix describing a Recent Engine with Tube Igniter. By 
T. M. Goodeve, M.A. 12mo, cloth $1.00 

THE ENGINEER'S YEAR=BOOK FOR 1906. 

Comprising Formulae, Rules, Tables, Data, and Memoranda in Civil, 
Mechanical, Electrical, Marine, and Mine Engineering. By H. R. 
Kempe, M.Inst.C.E., Principal Staff Engineer, Engineer-in-Chief's 
Office, General Post Office, London; Author of "A Handbook of Elec- 
trical Testing," "The Electrical Engineer's Pocket-Book," &c. With 
1,000 Illustrations, specially Engraved for the Work. 12mo, 950 pp., 
leather $3.00 

THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S POCKET=BOOK. 

Comprising Tables, Formulae, Rules, and Data: a Handy Book of Ref- 
erence for Daily Use in Engineering Practice. By D. Kinnear Clark, 
M.Inst.C.E. , Fifth Edition, thoroughly Revised and Enlarged. By H. H. 
P. Powles, A.M.Inst.C.E., M.I.M.E. Small 8vo, 700 pp., leather. $3.00 
Summary of Contents: — Mathematical Tables. — Measurement op 
Surfaces and Solids. — English Weights and Measures. — French 
Metric Weights and Measures. — Foreign Weights and Measures. — 
Moneys. — Specific Gravity, Weight, and Volume. — Manufactured 
Metals. — Steel Pipes. — Bolts and Nuts. — Sundry Articles in Wrought 
and Cast Iron, Copper, Brass, Lead, Tin, Zinc. — Strength of Mater- 
ials. — Strength of Timber. — Strength of Cast Iron. — Strength of 
Wrought Iron. — Strength of Steel. — Tensile Strength of Copper, 
Lead, &c. — Resistance of Stones and other Building Materials. — 
Riveted Joints in Boiler Plates. — Boiler Shells. — Wire Ropes and 
Hemp Ropes — Chains and Chain Cables. — Framing. — Hardness of 
Metals, Alloys, and Stones. — Labour of Animals. — Mechanical Prin- 
ciples. — Gravity and Fall of Bodies. — Accelerating and Retarding 
Forces. — Mill Gearing, Shafting, &c. — Transmission of Motive Power. 
— Heat. — Combustion. — Fuels. — Warming, Ventilation, Cooking 
Stoves. — Steam. — Steam Engines and Boilers. — Railways. — Tram- 
ways. — Steam Ships. — Pumping Steam Engines and Pumps.— Coal Gas, 
Gas Engines, &c. — -Air in Motion. — Compressed Air. — Hot- Air Engines. 
— Water Power. — Speed of Cutting Tools. — Colours. — Electrical. 
Engineering. 



8 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &• SON'S CATALOGUE. 
PRACTICAL MECHANICS' WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

Comprising a great Variety of the most useful Rules and Formulae in 
Mechanical Science, with numerous Tables of Practical Data and Cal- 
culated Results for Facilitating Mechanical Operations. By William 
Templeton, Author of "The Engineer's Practical Assistant," &c, <fec. 
Eighteenth Edition, Revised, Modernised, and considerably Enlarged, 
by W. S. Hutton, C.E., Author of "The Works' Manager's Hand- 
book," &c. Fcap. 8vo, nearly 500 pp., with 8 Plates and upwards of 
250 Diagrams, leather $2.50 

ENGINEER'S AND MILLWRIGHT'S ASSISTANT. 

A Collection of Useful Tables, Rules, and Data. By William Temple- 
ton. Eighth Edition, with Additions. 18mo, cloth $1.00 

TABLES AND MEMORANDA FOR ENGINEERS, 
MECHANICS, ARCHITECTS, BUILDERS, &c. 

Selected and Arranged by Francis Smith. Seventh Edition, Revised, 
including Electrical Tables, Formula, and Memoranda. Waist- 
coat-pocket size, limp leather # gQ 

THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S COMPANION. 

Of Areas, Circumferences, Decimal Equivalents, in inches and feet, mil- 
limetres, squares, cubes, roots, &c. ; Strength of Bolts, Weight of Iron, 
&c; Weights, Measures, and other Data. Also Practical Rules for 
Engine Proportions. By R. Edwards, M.Inst.C.E. Fcap. 8vo, cloth. 

$1.00 
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TERMS. 

(Lockwood's Dictionary of). Embracing those current in the Drawing 
Office, Pattern Shop, Foundry, Fitting, Turning, Smiths', and Boiler 
Shops, &c. Comprising upwards of 6,000 Definitions. Edited by J. 
G. Horner, A.M.I.M.E. Third Edition, Revised, with Additions. 
12mo, cloth $3.00 

"Just the sort of handy dictionary required by the various trades engaged 
in mechanical engineering. The practical engineering pupil will find the 
book of great value in his studies, and every foreman engineer and mechanic 
should have a copy." 

POCKET GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 

English-French, French-English ; with Tables suitable for the Archi- 
tectural, Engineering, Manufacturing, and Nautical Professions. By 
John James Fletcher. Fourth Edition, 200 pp. Waistcoat-pocket 
size, limp leather .60 

IRON AND STEEL. 

A Work for the Forge Foundry, Factory, and Office. Containing ready, 
useful, and trustworthy Information for Ironmasters and their Stock- 
takers ; Managers of Bar, Rail, Plate, and Sheet Rolling Mills ; Iron and 
Metal Founders; Iron, Ship, and Bridge Builders; Mechanical, Mining, 
and Consulting Engineers; Architects, Contractors, Builders, &c. By 
Charles Hoare, Author of "The Slide Rule," &c. Ninth Edition. 
32mo, leather $2.50 

WORKMAN'S MANUAL OF ENGINEERING DRAWING. 

By John Maxton, Instructor in Engineering Drawing, Royal Naval 
College, Greenwich. Eighth Edition. 300 Plates and Diagrams. 

12mo, cloth $1.40 

"A copy of it should be kept for reference in every drawing office." — En- 
gineering. 

PATTERN MAKING. 

Embracing the Main Types of Engineering Construction, and including 
Gearing, Engine Work, Sheaves and Pulleys, Pipes and Columns, Screws, 
Machine Parts, Pumps and Cocks, the Moulding of Patterns in Loam 
and Greensand, Weight of Castings, &c. Bv J. G. Horner, A.M.I.M.E. 
Third Edition, Enlarged. With 486 Illustrations. 12mo, cloth. $3.00 



MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, &c. 9 

SMITHY AND FORGE. 

Including the Farrier's Art and Coach Smithing. By W. J. E. Crane. 

12mo, cloth. . $1.00 

"The first modern English book on the subject. Great pains have been 
bestowed by the author upon the book; shoeing-smiths will find it both 
useful and interesting." 

TOOTHED GEARING. 

A Practical Handbook for Offices and Workshops. By J. Horner, 
A.M.I.M.E. Second Edition, with a new Chapter on Recent Practice. 
With - 184 Illustrations. 12mo, cloth $2.25 

MODERN WORKSHOP PRACTICE, 

As applied to Marine, Land, and Locomotive Engines, Floating Docks, 
Dredging Machines, Bridges, Shipbuilding, &c. By J. G. Winton. 
Fourth Edition, Illustrated. 12mo, cloth $1.40 

DETAILS OF MACHINERY. 

Comprising Instructions for the Execution of various Works in Iron in 
the Fitting Shop, Foundry, and Boiler Yard. By Francis Campin, 
C.E. 12mo, cloth $1.20 

ENGINEERING ESTIMATES, COSTS, AND ACCOUNTS. 

A Guide to Commercial Engineering. With numerous examples of Es- 
timates and Costs of Millwright Work, Miscellaneous Productions, 
Steam Engines and Steam Boilers ; and a Section on the Preparation 
of Costs Accounts. By A General Manager. Second Edition. 8vo, 
cloth $4.50 

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. 

Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, Workshop 
Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture of the Steam En- 
gine, &c. By Francis Campin, C.E. Third Edition. 12mo, cloth 

$1.00 

LATHE-WORK. 

A Practical Treatise on the Tools. Appliances, and Processes employed in 
the Art of Turning. By Paul N. Hasluck. Eighth Edition. 12mo, 

cloth $2.00 

"Written by a man who knows not only how work ought to be done, but 

who also knows how to do it, and how to convey his knowledge to others." — 

Engineering. 

SCREW-THREADS, 

And Methods of Producing Them. With numerous Tables and com- 
plete Directions for using Screw-cutting Lathes. By Paul N. Hasluck, 
Author of "Lathe-work," &c. Sixth Edition. Waistcoat-pocket size. 

.60 

"Full of useful information, hints and practiral criticism. Taps, dies, 
and screwing tools generally are illustrated and their action described." 

CONDENSED MECHANICS. 

A Selection of Formulae, Rules, Tables, and Data for the Use of Engi- 
neering Students, &c. By W. G. C. Hughes, A.M. I.C.E. 12mo, cloth. 

$1.00 

MECHANICS OF AIR MACHINERY. 

By Dr. J. Weisbach and Prof. G. Herrmann. Authorized Translation 
with an Appendix on American Practice by A. Trowbridge, Ph.B., 
Adjunct Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Cohimbia University. 
Royal 8vo, cloth Net $3.75 



io CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
PRACTICAL MECHANISM. 

And Machine Tools. By T. Baker, C.E. With Remarks on Tools and 
Machinery by J. Nasmyth, C.E. 12mo, cloth $1.00 

MECHANICS. 

Being a concise Exposition of the. General Principles of Mechanical 
Science and their Applications. By C. Tomlinson, F.R.S. 12mo, 
cloth 60 

FUELS: SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS. 

Their Analysis and Valuation. For the use of Chemists and Engineers. 
By IT. J. Phillips, F.C.S-, formerly Analytical and Consulting Chemist 
to the Great Eastern Railway. Fourth Edition. 12mo, cloth. . .80 
"Ought to have its place in the laboratory of every metallurgical estab- 
lishment and wherever fuel is used on a large scale." — Chemical News. 

FUEL, ITS COMBUSTION AND ECONOMY. 

Consisting of an Abridgment of " A Treatise on the Combustion of Coal 
and the Prevention of Smoke." By C. W. Williams, A.Inst. C.E. 
With extensive Additions by D. Kinnear Clark, M.Inst. C.E. 

• Fourth Edition. 12mo, cloth $1.50 

"Students should buy the book and read it, as one of the most complete 
and satisfactory treatises on the combustion and economy of fuel to be 
had." — Engineer. 

STEAM AND THE STEAM ENGINE, 

Stationary and Portable. Being an Extension of the Treatise on the 
Steam Engine of Mr. J. Sewell. By D. K. Clark, C.E. Fourth Edi- 
tion. 12mo, cloth $1.40 

"Every essential part of the subject is treated of competently, and in a 
popular style." 

PUMPS AND PUMPING. 

A Handbook for Pump Users. Being Notes on Selection, Construction, 
and Management. By M. Powis Bale, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.Mech.E. 

Fourth Edition. 12mo, cloth $1.50 

" Thoroughly practical and clearly written." 



REFRIGERATION, COLD STORAGE, & ICE-MAKING. 

A Practical Treatise on the Art and Science of Refrigeration. By. A. 
J. Wallis-Tatler, A.M. Inst. C.E. , Author of "Refrigerating and Ice- 
Making Machinerv." 600 pp., with 360 Illustrations. Medium 8vo, 

cloth $4.50 

Contents: — Chapter I. Introduction. — II. The Theory and Prac- 
tice op Refrigeration. — III. The Liquefaction Process. — IV. The 
Vacuum Process. — V. The Compression Process or System. — VI. The 
Compression Process (Continued). — VII. The Compression Process (Con- 
tinued). — VIII. Condensers and Water-Cooling and Saving Apparatus. 
— IX. The Absorption and Binary Absorption Process or System. — 
X. The Cold-Air System. — XI. Cocks, Valves and Pipe-Joints and 
Unions. — XII. Refrigeration and Cold Storage. — XIII. Refrigera- 
tion and Cold Storage (Continued). — XIV. Refrigeration and Cold 
Storage (Continued). — XV. Refrigeration and Cold Storage (Con- 
tinued). — XVI. Marine Refrigeration. — XVII. Manufacturing, In- 
dustrial and Constructional Applications. — XVIII. Ice-Making. — 

XIX. The Management and Testing of Refrigerating Machinery. — 

XX. Cost of Working. — XXI. The Production of Very Low Temper- 
atures. — XXII. Useful Tables and Memoranda. — Appendix. — Bibli- 
ography of Refrigeration. 



CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, &>e. 11 

THE POCKET BOOK OF REFRIGERATION AND ICE- 
MAKING. 

By A. J. Wallis-Tayler, A.M. Inst. C.E. Author of "Refrigerating 
and Ice-making Machinery," &c. Third Edition, Enlarged. 12mo, 
doth $1.50 

REFRIGERATING & ICE=MAKING MACHINERY. 

A Descriptive Treatise for the Use of Persons Employing Refrigerating 
and Ice-making Installations, and others. By A. J. Wallis-Tayler, 

A.M.Inst.C.E. Third Edition, Enlarged. 12mo, cloth $3.00 

"May be recommended as a useful description of the machinery, the proc- 
esses, anc^of the acts, figures, and tabulated physics of refrigerating." — En- 
gineer. 

MOTOR VEHICLES FOR BUSINESS PURPOSES. 

A Practical Handbook for those interested in the Transport of Passen- 
gers and Goods. By A. J. Wallis-Tayler, A.M.Inst.C.E. With 134 
Illustrations. Demy 8 vo, cloth [Just published.] $3.50 

MOTOR CARS OR POWER=CARRIAGES FOR COMMON 
ROADS. 

By A. J. Wallis-Tayler, A.M.Inst.C.E. 212 pp., with 76 Illustrations. 
12mo, cloth $2.00 

AERIAL NAVIGATION. 

A Practical Handbook on the Construction of Dirigible Balloons, Aero- 
stats, Aeroplanes, and Aeromotors. By Frederick Walker, C.E., 
Associate Member of the Aeronautic Institute. With 104 Illustrations. 
Large 12mo, cloth $3.00 

STONE=WORKING MACHINERY. 

A Manual dealing with the Rapid and Economical Conversion of Stone. 
With Hints on the Arrangement and Management of Stone Works. By 
M. Powrs Bale, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.Mech.E. Second Edition, enlarged. 

12mo, cloth $3.50 

"The book should be in the hands of every mason or student of stone- 
work." 

"A handbook for all who manipulate stone for building or ornamental 
purposes." 

FIRES, FIRE=ENGINES, AND FIRE BRIGADES. 

With a History of Fire-Engines, their Construction, Use, and Manage- 
ment; Foreign Fire Systems; Hints on Fire-Brigades, &c. By C. F. 
T. Young, C.E. 8vo, cloth $8.00 

CRANES. 

The Construction of, and other Machinery for Raising Heavy Bodies 
for the Erection of Buildings, &c. By J. Glynn, F.R.S. 12mo, cloth. 

.60 



CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC. 
PIONEER IRRIGATION. 

A Manual of Information for Farmers in the Colonies. By E. O. Maw- 
son, M.Inst.C.E., Executive Engineer, Public Works Department, 
Bombay. With Additional Chanters on Light Railways by E. R. 
Calthrop, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.M.E. Illustrated by numerous Plates 

and Diagrams. Demy 8vo, cloth $4.00 

Summary of Contents ; — Value of Irrigation, and Sources of Water 
Supply. — Dams and Weirs. — Canals. — Underground Water. — Meth- 
ods of Irrigation. — Sewage Irrigation. — Imperial Automatic Sluice 
Gates. — The Cultivation of Irrigated Crops, Vegetables, and Fruit 
Trees. — Light Railways for Heavy Traffic. — Useful Memoranda and 
Data. 



12 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
THE RECLAMATION OF LAND FROM TIDAL WATERS. 

A Handbook for Engineers, Landed Proprietors, and others interested 
in Works of Reclamation. By A. Beazely, M.Inst.C.E. 8vo, cloth. 

$4.00 
"The book'shows in a concise way what has to be done in reclaiming land 
from the sea, and the best way of doing it. Contains a great deal of prac- 
tical and useful information which cannot fail to be of service to engineers 
entrusted with the enclosure of salt marshes, and to landowners intending 
to reclaim land from the sea." — The Engineer. 

THE WATER SUPPLY OF TOWNS AND THE CON- 
STRUCTION OF WATER-WORKS. 

A Practical Treatise for the Use of Engineers and Students of Engineer- 
ing. By W. K. Burton, A.M.Inst.C.E., Consulting Engineer to the 
Tokyo Water- works. Second Edition, Revised and Extended. With 
numerous Plates and Illustrations. Super-royal 8vo, buckram. $9.00 
I. Introductory. — II. Different Qualities of Water. — III. Quan- 
tity of Water to be Provided. — IV. On Ascertaining whether a Pro- 
posed Source of Supply is Sufficient. — V. On Estimating the Storage 
Capacity Required to be Provided. — VI. Classification of Water- 
works. — VII. Impounding Reservoirs. — VIII. Earthwork Dams. — IX. 
Masonry Dams. — X. The Purification of Water. — XI. Settling Res- 
ervoirs. — XII. Sand Filtration. — XIII. Purification of Water by 
Action of Iron, Softening of Water by Action of Lime, Natural 
Filtration. — XIV. Service or Clean Water Reservoirs — Water 
Towers — Stand Pipes. — XV. The Connection of Settling Reservoirs, 
Filter Beds and Service Reservoirs. — XVI. Pumping Machinery. — 

XVII. Flow of Water in Conduits — Pipes and Open Channels. — 

XVIII. Distribution Systems. — XIX. Special Provisions for the Ex- 
tinction of Fire. — XX. Pipes for Water-works. — XXl. Prevention 
of Waste of Water. — XXII. Various Appliances used in Connection 
with Water-works. 

Appendix I. By Prof. JOHN MILNE, F.R.S. — Considerations Con- 
cerning the Probable Effects of Earthquakes on Water- works, and 
the Special Precautions to be Taken in Earthquake Countries. 

Appendix II. By JOHN DE RIJKE, C.E.— On Sand Dunes and Dune 
Sand as a Source of Water Supply. 

THE WATER SUPPLY OF CITIES AND TOWNS. 

By William Humber, A.M.Inst.C.E., and M.Inst.M.E., Author of 
"Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction," &c, &c. Illustrated 
with 50 Double Plates, 1 Single Plate, Coloured Frontispiece, and up- 
wards of 250 Woodcuts, and containing 400 pp. of Text. Imp. 4to, 

elegantly and substantially half-bound in morocco $45.00 

List of Contents: — I. Historical Sketch of some of the means that 

HAVE BEEN ADOPTED FOR THE SUPPLY OF WATER TO ClTIES AND TOWNS. 

II. Water and the Foreign Matter usually associated with it. — III. 
Rainfall and Evaporation. — IV. Springs and the Water-bearing 
Formations of Various Districts. — V. Measurement and Estimation 
of the Flow of Water. — VI. On the Selection of the Source of Sup- 
ply. — VII. Wells. — VIII. Reservoirs. — IX. The Purification of 
Water. — X. Pumps. — XL Pumping Machinery. — XII. Conduits. — 
XIII. Distribution of Water. — XIV. Meters, Service Pipes, and 
House Fittings. — XV. The Law and Economy of Water- works. — XVI. 
Constant and Intermittent Supply. — XVII. Description of Plates. — 
Appendices, giving Tables of Rates of Supply, Velocities, &c, &c, 
together with Specifications of Several Works Illustrated, among 
which will be found: Aberdeen, Bideford, Canterbury, Dundee, 
Halifax, Lambeth, Rotherham, Dublin, and others. 

RURAL WATER SUPPLY. 

A Practical Handbook on the Sunply of Water and Construction of 
Water-works for small Country Districts. Bv Allan Greenwell, 
A.M.Inst.C.E., and W. T. Curry, A.M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. With Illus- 
trations. Second Edition, Revised. 12mo, cloth $2.00 



CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, &c. 13 

WATER ENGINEERING. 

A Practical Treatise on the Measurement, Storage, Conveyance, and 
Utilization of Water for the Supply of Towns, for Mill Power, and for 
other Purposes. By Charles Slagg, A.M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition. 
12mo, cloth $3.00 

WATER WORKS, FOR THE SUPPLY OF CITIES AND 
TOWNS. 

With a Description of the Principal Geological Formations of England 
as influencing Supplies of Water. By Samuel, Hughes. 12mo, cloth. 

$1.60 

POWER OF WATER. 

As applied to drive Flour Mills, and to give motion to Turbines, and 
other Hydrostatic Engines. By Joseph Glynn, F.R.S., &c. New 
Edition. Illustrated. 12mo, cloth # gQ 

WELLS AND WELL=SINKING. 

By J. G. Swindell, A.R.I.B.A., and G. R. Burnell, C.E. Revised 

Edition. 12mo, cloth # 8Q 

"Solid practical information, written in a concise and lucid style. The 
work can be recommended." 

HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING. 

A Practical Manual on the Concentration and Transmission of Power 
by Hydraulic Machinery. By G. Croydon Marks, A. M.Inst. C.E. 
Second Edition, Enlarged, with about 240 Illustrations. 8vo, cloth. 

[Just Published. $3.50 
Summary op Contents: — Principles of Hydraulics. — The Flow of 
Water. — Hydraulic Pressures. — Material. — Test Load. — Packings 
for Sliding Surfaces. — Pipe Joints. — Controlling Valves. — Platform 
Lifts. — Workshop and Foundry Cranes. — Warehouse and Dock 
Cranes. — Hydraulic Accumulators. — Presses for Baling and other 
Purposes. — Sheet Metal Working and Forging Machinery. — Hy- 
draulic Riveters. — Hand and Power Pumps. — Steam Pumps. — Tur- 
bines. — Impulse Turbines. — Reaction Turbines. — Design of Tur- 
bines in Detail. — Water Wheels. — Hydraulic Engines. — Recent 
Achievements. — Pressure of Water. — Action of Pumps, &c. 

HYDRAULIC MANUAL. 

Consisting of Working Tables and Explanatory Text. Intended as a 
Guide in Hydraulic Calculations and Field Operations. By Lowis 
D'A. Jackson, Author of "Aid to Survey Practice," "Modern Metrol- 
ogy," &c. Fourth Edition, Enlarged. 8vo, cloth $6.00 

"The author has constructed a manual which may be accepted as a trust- 
worthy guide to this branch of the engineer's profession." — Engineering. 

HYDRAULIC TABLES, CO=EFFICIENTS, & FORMUL^. 

For Finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, Weirs, 
Pipes, and Rivers. With New Formulae, Tables, and General Informa- 
tion on Rain-fall, Catchment-Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, Water Sup- 
ply for Towns and Mill Power. By John Neville, C.E. , M.R.I. A. 
Third Edition, revised, with additions. Numerous Illustrations. 

12mo, cloth $5.00 

"It is, of all English books on the subject, the one nearest to complete- 
ness." 

MASONRY DAMS FROM INCEPTION TO COMPLETION. 

Including numerous Formulas, Forms of Specifications and Tender, 
Pocket Diagram of Forces, &c. For the use of Civil and Mining En- 
gineers. By C. F. Courtney, M.Inst.C.E. 8vo, cloth , $3.50 

"Contains a good deal of valuable data. Many useful suggestions will be 

found in the remarks on site and position, location of dam, foundations 

and constuctiou." — Building Newt. 



i 4 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
RIVER BARS. 

The Causes of their Formation, and their Treatment by "Induced Tidal 
Scour"; with a Description of the Successful Reduction by this Method 
of the Bar at Dublin. By I. J. Mann, Assist. Eng. to the Dublin Port 

and Docks Board. Royal 8vo, cloth $3.00 

"We recommend all interested in harbour works — and, indeed, those con- 
cerned in the improvements of rivers generally — to read Mr. Mann's inter- 
esting work." — Engineer. 

DRAINAGE OF LANDS, TOWNS, AND BUILDINGS. 

By G. D. Dempsey, C.E. Revised, with large Additions on Recent 
Practice in Drainage Engineering by D. Kinnear Clark, M. Inst. C.E. 
Fourth Edition. 12mo, cloth SI. 80 

SURVEYING AS PRACTISED BY CIVIL ENGINEERS 
AND SURVEYORS. 

Including the Setting-out of Works for Construction and Surveys 
Abroad, -with many Examples taken from Actual Practice. A Hand- 
book for use in the Field and the Office, intended also as a Text -book 
for Students. By John Whitelaw, Jun., A.M. Inst. C.E., Author of 
"Points and Crossings." With about 260 Illustrations. Demy 8vo, 
cloth $4.00 

PRACTICAL SURVEYING. 

A Text-book for Students preparing for Examination or for Survey- 
work in the Colonies. By George W. Usu.ii, A. M.Inst. C.E. Eighth 
Edition, thoroughly Revised and Enlarged, t~y Aiex Beazeley, 
M.Inst.C !.E. With 4 Lithographic Plates and 360 Illustrations. 12mo, 
cloth $3.00 

SURVEYING WITH THE TACHEOMETER. 

A practical Manual for the use of Civil and Military Engineers and Sur- 
veyors, including two series of Tables specially computed for the Re- 
duction of Readings in Sexagesimal and in Centesimal Degrees. By 
Xeil, Kennedy, M.Inst. C.E. With Diagrams and Plates. Second 

Edition. 8vo, cloth $4.00 

"The work is very clearly written, and should remove all difficulties in the 
way of any surveyor desirous of making use of this useful and rapid instru- 
ment . " — Nature. 

LAND AND ENGINEERING SURVEYING. 

For Students and Practical Use. Py T. Baker, C.E. Twentieth Edi- 
tion, by F. E. Dixon, A.M.Ir.st.C.E. With Plates and Diagrams. 
12mo, cloth 80 

AID TO SURVEY PRACTICE. 

For Reference in Surveying, Levelling, and Setting-out ; and in Route 
Surveys of Travellers by Land and Sea. With Tables, Illustrations, 
and Records. By L. D'A. Jackson, A. M.Inst. C.E. Second Edition. 
8vo, cloth $5.00 

LAND AND MARINE SURVEYING. 

In Reference to the Preparation of Plans for Roads and Railways; 
Canals, Rivers, Towns' Water Supplies; Docks and Harbours. With 
Description and Use of Surveying Instrument?. By W. Davis Haskoli., 
C.E. Second Edition , Revised with Additions. Crown 8vo, cloth. 

$3.50 



CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, brc. 15 

ENGINEER'S & MINING SURVEYOR'S FIELD BOOK. 

Consisting of a Series of Tables, with Rules, Explanations of Systems 
and use of Theodolite for Traverse Surveying and plotting the work 
with minute accuracy by means of Straight Edge and Set Square only; 
Levelling with the Theodolite, Setting-out Curves with and without the 
Theodolite, Earthwork Tables, &c. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. With 
numerous Woodcuts. Fifth Edition, Enlarged. 12mo, cloth. $4.50 
"The book is very handy; the separate tables of sines and tangents to 

every minute will make it useful for many other purposes, the genuine 

traverse tables existing all the same." 

AN OUTLINE OF THE METHOD OF CONDUCTING 
A TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY. 

Forthe Formation of Geographical and Topographical Maps and Plans, 
Military Reconnaissance, LEVELLING, &c, with Useful Problems, 
Formulae, and Tables. By Lieut. -General Fromb, R.E. Fourth Edi- 
tion, Revised and partly Re-written by Major-General Sir Charles 
Warren, G.C.M.G., R.E. With 19 Plates and 13 5 Woodcuts. 8vo, 
doth $6.00 

PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF LEVELLING. 

Showing its Application to Purposes of Railway and Civil Engineering 
in the Construction of Roads; with Mr. Telford's Rules for the same. 
By Frederick W. Simms, M.Inst.C.E. Eighth Edition, with Law's 
Practical Examples for Setting-out Railway Curves, and Trautwine's 
•Field Practice of Laying out Circular Curves. With 7 Plates and nu- 
merous Woodcuts. 8vo $2.50 

"The text-book on. levelling in most of our engineering schools and col- 
leges." — Engineer. 

"The publishers have rendered a substantial service to the profession, 
especially to the younger members, by bringing out the present edition of 
Mr. Simm's useful work." — Engineering. 

TABLES OF TANGENTIAL ANGLES AND MULTIPLES. 

For Setting-out Curves from 5 to 200 Radius. By A. BsAZELEY.M.Inst. 
C.E. 7th Edition, Revised. With an Appendix on the use of the 
Tables for Measuring up Curves. Printed on 50 Cards, and sold in a 

cloth box, waistcoat-pocket size $1.50 

"Each table is printed on a small card, which, placed on the theodolite, 

leaves the hands free to manipulate the instrument — no small advantage 

as regards the rapidity of work." 

"Very handy; a man may know that all his day's work must fall on two 

of these cards, which he puts into his own card-case, and leaves the rest 

behind." 

PIONEER ENGINEERING. 

A treatise on the Engineering Operations connected with the Settle- 
ment of Waste Lands in New Countries. By E. Dobson, M.Inst.C.E. 

Second Edition. 12mo, cloth $1.80 

"Mr. Dobson is familiar with the difficulties which have to be overcome 

in this class of work, and much of his advice will be valuable to young 

engineers proceeding to our colonies." — Engineering. 

TUNNELLING. 

A Practical Treatise. By Charles Prelini, C.E. With additions by 
Charles S. Hill, C.E. With 150 Diagrams and Illustrations. Royal 
8vo, cloth $3.00 

PRACTICAL TUNNELLING. 

Explaining in detail Setting-out the Works, Shaft-sinking, and Heading- 
driving, Ranging the Lines and Levelling underground, Sub-Excavat- 
ing, Timbering and the Construction of the Brickwork of Tunnels. By 
F. W. SiMMis. M.Inst.C.E. Fourth Edition. Revised and Further Ex- 
tended, including the most recent (1895) Examples of Sub-aqueous and 
other Tunnels, by D. Kinnear Clark, M.Inst.C.E. With 34 Folding 
Plates. Imperial 8vo, cloth $9.00 



16 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &> SON'S CATALOGUE. 
EARTH AND ROCK EXCAVATION. 

A Practical Treatise, by Charles Prelini, C.E. 365 pp., with Tables, 
many Diagrams and. Engravings. Royal 8vo, cloth. 

[Just Published. $3.00 

CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS AND STREETS. 

By H. Law, C.E., and D. K. Clark, C.E. Sixth Edition, revised, with 
Additional Chapters by A. J. Wallis-Tayler, A.M.Inst.C.E. 12mo, 
cloth $2.50 

TRAMWAYS: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING. 

Embracing a Comprehensive History of the System ; with an exhaustive 
Analysis of the Various Modes of Traction, including Horse Power, 
Steam, Cable Traction, Electric Traction, &c; a Description of the 
Varieties of Rolling Stock; and ample Details of Cost and Working 
Expenses. New Edition, Thoroughly Revised, and Including the 
Progress recently made in Tramway Construction, &c, &c. By D. 
Kinnear Clark, M.Inst. C.E. With 400 Illustrations. 8vo, 780 pp., 
buckram $7.50 

HANDY GENERAL EARTHWORK TABLES. 

Giving the Contents in Cubic Yards of Centre and Slopes of Cuttings 
and Embankments from 3 inches to 80 feet in Depth or Height, for use 
with either 66 feet Chain or 100 feet Chain. By J. H. Watson Bu«k, 
M.Inst. C.E. On a sheet mounted in cloth case $1.50 

EARTHWORK TABLES. 

Showing the Contents in Cubic Yards of Embankments. Cuttings, &c, 
of Heights or Depths up to an average of 80 f eet. By Joseph Broad- 
bent, C.E., and Francis Campin, C.E. 12mo, cloth $2.00 

"The way in which accuracy is attained, by a simple division of each cross 

section into three elements, two in which are constant and one variable, is 

ingenious." 

A MANUAL ON EARTHWORK. 

By Alex. J. Graham, C.E. With numerous Diagrams. Second Edi- 
tion. 18mo, cloth $1.00 

THE CONSTRUCTION OF LARGE TUNNEL SHAFTS. 

A Practical and Theoretical Essay. By J. H. Watson Buck, M.Inst. 
C.E., Resident Engineer, L. and N. W. R. With Folding Plates, 8vo, 

cloth $4.80 

"Many of the methods given are of extreme practical value to the mason, 
and the observations on the form of arch, the rules for ordering the stone, 
and the construction of the templates, will be found of considerable use." 

ESSAY ON OBLIQUE BRIDGES 

(Practical and Theoretical. ) With 13 large Plates. By the late George 
Watson Buck, M.Inst. C.E Fourth Edition, revised by his Son, J. H. 
Watson Buck, M.Inst C.E ; and with the addition of Description to 
Diagrams for Facilitating the Construction of Oblique Bridges, by W. 
H. Barlow, M.Inst. C.E Royal 8vo, cloth $4.80 

CAST & WROUGHT IRON BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION 

(A Complete and Practical Treatise on), including Iron Foundations. 
In Three Parts. — Theoretical, Practical, and Descriptive By Wil 
liam Humber, A.M.Inst C.E. , and M Inst.M.E. Third Edition, revised 
and much improved, with 115 Double Plates (20 of which now first 
appear in this edition ), and numerous Additions to the Text. In 2 vols., 
imp. 4to, half-bound in morocco $50.00 

IRON BRIDGES OF MODERATE SPAN: 

Their Construction and Erection. By H. W. Pendred With 40 Il- 
lustrations. 12mo, cloth # §q 



CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, &c. 17 

IRON AND STEEL BRIDGES AND VIADUCTS. 

A Practical Treatise upon their Construction. For the use of Engi- 
neers, Draughtsmen, and Students. By Francis Campin, C.E. 12mo, 
cloth $1.40 

TUBULAR AND OTHER IRON GIRDER BRIDGES, 

Describing the Britannia and Conway Tubular Bridges. With a 
Sketch of Iron Bridges, &c. By G. D. Dempsey, C.E. 12mo, cloth, 

.80 

GRAPHIC AND ANALYTIC STATICS. 

In Their Practical Application to the Treatment of Stresses in Roofs, 
Solid Girders, Lattice, Bowstring, and Suspension Bridges, Braced 
Iron Arches and Piers, and other Frameworks. By R. Hudson 
Graham, C.E. Containing Diagrams and Plates to Scale. With num- 
erous Examples, many taken from existing Structures. Specially 
arranged for Class-work in Colleges and Universities. Second Edition, 
Revised and Enlarged. 8vo, cloth $6.00 

WEIGHTS OF WROUGHT IRON & STEEL GIRDERS. 

A Graphic Table for Facilitating the Computation of the Weights of 
Wrought Iron and Steel Girders, &c, for Parliamentary and other 
Estimates. By J. H. Watson Buck, M.Inst.C.E. On a sheet. $1.00 

GEOMETRY FOR TECHNICAL STUDENTS. 

An Introduction to Pure and Applied Geometry and the Mensuration 
of Surfaces and Solids, including Problems in Plane Geometry useful in 
Drawing. By E. H. Sprague, A.M.Inst. C.E. 12mo, cloth. . . .50 

PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 

For the Architect, Engineer, and Mechanic. Giving Rules for the Delin- 
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Curves. By E. W. Tarn, M.A., Architect. 8 vo, cloth $3.50 

"No book with the same objects in view has ever been published in which 

the clearness of the rules laid down and the illustrative diagrams have been 

so satisfactory." — Scotsman. 

THE GEOMETRY OF COMPASSES. 

Or, Problems Resolved by the mere Description of Circles and the Use 
of Coloured Diagrams and Symbols. By Oliver Btrne. Coloured 
Plates. 12mo, cloth $1.50 

MENSURATION AND MEASURING. 

With the Mensuration and Levelling of Land for the purposes of Modern 
Engineering. By T. Baker, C.E. New Edition by E. Nugent, C.E. 
12mo, cloth .60 

HANDY BOOK FOR THE CALCULATION OF STRAINS 

In Girders and Similar Structures and their Strength. Consisting of 
Formulae and Corresponding Diagrams, with numerous details for Prac- 
tical Application, &c. By William Humber, A. M.Inst.C.E., &c. Sixth 
Edition. 12mo, with nearly 100 Woodcuts and 3 Plates, cloth. $2.50 

THE STRAINS ON STRUCTURES OF IRONWORK. 

With Practical Remarks on Iron Construction. By F. W. Shields, 
M.Inst.C.E. 8vo, cloth $2.00 

CONSTRUCTIONAL IRON AND STEEL WORK, 

As applied to Public, Private, and Domestic Buildings. By Francis 
Campin, C.E. 12mo, cloth $1.40 



18 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &• SON'S CATALOGUE. 
MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION. 

A Theoretical and Practical Treatise on the Strains, Designing, and 
Erection of Works of Construction. By Francis Campin, C.E. Third 

Edition. 12mo, cloth $1.20 

"No better exposition of the practical application of the principles of 

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EXPERIMENTS ON THE FLEXURE OF BEAMS. 

Resulting in the Discovery of New Laws of Failure by Buckling. By 
Albert E. Guy. Medium 8vo, cloth Net $1,25 

TRUSSES OF WOOD AND IRON. 

Practical Applications of Science in Determining the Stresses, Breaking 
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8vo, cloth $1.80 

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these matters." — Practical Engineer. 

CONSTRUCTION OF ROOFS, OF WOOD AND IRON: 

Deduced chiefly from the Works of Robison, Tredgold, and Humber. 

By E. W. Tarn, M.A., Architect. Fourth Edition. 12mo, cloth. .60 
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A TREATISE ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

With Rules for Application in Architecture, the Construction of Sus- 
pension Bridges, Railways, &c. By Peter Barlow, F.R.S. A new 
Edition, revised by his Sons, P. W. Barlow, F.R.S. , and W. H. Barlow. 
F.R.S. ; to which are added, Experiments by Hodgkinson, Fairbairn, 
and Kirkaldy; and Formulae for calculating Girders, &c. Edited by 
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EXPANSION OF STRUCTURES BY HEAT. 

By John Keily, C.E., late of the Indian Public Works Department. 

12mo, cloth $1.50 

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CIVIL ENGINEERING. 

By Henry Law, M.Inst. C.E. Including a Treatise on Hydraulic En- 
gineering by G. R. Burnell, M.Inst. C.E. Seventh Edition, revised, 
with Large Additions on Recent Practice by D. Kinnear Clark, 
M.Inst.C.E. 12mo, cloth $2.60 

GAS WORKS, 

Their Construction and Arrangement, and the Manufacture and Distri- 
bution of Coal Gas. By S. Hughes, C.E. Ninth Edition. Revised, 
with Notices of Recent Improvements by Henry O'Connor, A.M.Inst. 

C.E. 12mo, cloth $2.40 

"Of infinite service alike to manufacturers, distributors, and consumers." 



MARINE ENGINEERING, NAVIGATION, &>c. 19 
PNEUMATICS, 

Including Acoustics and the Phenomena of Wind Currents, for the use 
of Beginners. By Charles Tomlinson, F.R.S. 12mo, cloth. .60 

FOUNDATIONS AND CONCRETE WORKS. 

With Practical Remarks on Footings, Planking, Sand, Concrete, B^ton, 
Pile-driving, Caissons, and Cofferdams. By E. Dobson. 12mo. .60 

BLASTING AND QUARRYING OF STONE, 

For Building and other Purposes. With Remarks on the Blowing up of 
Bridges. By Gen. Sir J. Burgoyne, K.C.B. 12mo, cloth. .. . .60 

SAFE RAILWAY WORKING. 

A Treatise on Railway Accidents, their Cause and Prevention; with a 
Description of Modern Appliances and Systems. By Clement E. 

Stretton, C.E. Third Edition, Enlarged. 12mo, cloth $1.50 

"A book for the engineer, the directors, the managers; and, in short, all 

who wish for information on railway matters will find a perfect encyclopaedia 

in 'Safe Railway Working.'" — Railway Review. 



MARINE ENGINEERING, SHIPBUILDING, 
NAVIGATION, ETC. 



MARINE ENGINES AND BOILERS. 

Their Design and Construction. A Handbook for the Use of Students, 
Engineers, and Naval Constructors. Based on the Work "Berechnung 
und Konstruktion der Schiffsmaschinen und Kessel," by Dr. G. Bauer, 
Engineer-in-Chief of the Vulcan Shipbuilding Yard, Stettin. Translated 
from the Second German Edition by E. M. Donkin, and S. Bryan 
Donkin, A.M. I. C.E. Edited by Leslie S. Robertson, Secretary to 
the Engineering Standards Committee, M.I. C.E. , M.I.M.E., M.I.N.A., 
&c. With numsrous Illustrations and Tables. Thick 8vo, cloth, 

[Just Published. $9.00 
Summary of Contents: — PART I. — MAIN ENGINES. — Determina- 
tion of Cylinder Dimensions. — The Utilisation of Steam in the En- 
gine. — Stroke of Piston. — Number of Revolutions. — Turning Moment. 
— Balancing of the Moving Parts. — Arrangement of Main Engines. — 
Details of Main Engines. — The Cylinder. — Valves. — Various Kinds 
of Valve Gear. — Piston Rods. — Pistons. — Connecting Rod and Cross- 
head. — Valve Gear Rods. — Bed Plates. — Engine Columns. — Revers- 
ing and Turning Gear. PART II. — PUMPS. — Air, Circulating Feed, 
and Auxiliary Pumps. PART III.— SHAFTING, RESISTANCE OF 
SHIPS, PROPELLERS.— Thrust Shaft and Thrust Block.— Tunnel- 
Shafts and Plummer Blocks. — Shaft Couplings. — Stern Tube. — The 
Screw Propeller. — Construction of the Screw. PART IV. — PIPES 
AND CONNECTIONS.— General Remarks, Flanges, Valves, &c— 
Under Water Fittings. — Main Steam, Auxiliary Steam, and Exhaust 
Piping. — Feed Water, Bilge, Ballast and Circulating Pipes. PART 
V. — STEAM BOILERS. — Firing and the Generation of Steam. — 
Cylindrical Boilers. — Locomotive Boilers. — Water-tube Boilers. — 
Small Tube Water-Tube Boilers. — Smoke Box. — Funnel and Boiler 
Lagging. — Forced Draught. — Boiler Fittings and Mountings. 
PART VI.— MEASURING INSTRUMENTS. PART VII— VARIOUS 
DETAILS. — Bolts, Nuts, Screw Threads, &c. — Platforms, Gratings, 
Ladders. — Foundations. — Seatings. — Lubrication. — Ventilation of 
Engine Rooms.— Rules for Spare Gear. PART VIII.— ADDITIONAL 
TABLES. 



2o CROSBY LOCKWOOD &■ SON'S CATALOGUE. 

THE NAVAL ARCHITECT'S AND SHIPBUILDER'S 
POCKET=BOOK 

Of Formulae, Rules, and Tables, and Marine Engineer's and Surveyor's 
Handy Book of Reference. By Clement Mackrow, M.I.N. A. Eighth 
Edition, carefully Revised and Enlarged. Fcap, leather. . Net $5.00 
Summary of Contents: — Signs and Symbols, Decimal, Fractions. — 
Trigonometry. — Practical Geometry. — Mensuration. — Centres and 
Moments of Figures. — Moments of Inertia and Radii Gyration. — Al- 
gebraical Expressions for Simpson's Rules. — Mechanical Principles. 
— Centre of Gravity. — Laws of Motion. — Displacement, Centre of 
Buoyancy. — Centre of Gravity of Ships' Hull. — Stability Curves and 
Metacentres. — Sea and Shallow-water Waves. — Rolling of Ships. — 
Propulsion and Resistance of Vessels. — Speed Trials. — Sailing, Cen- 
tre of Effort. — Distances down Rivers, Coast Lines. — Steering and 
Rudders of Vessels. — Launching Calculations and Velocities. — 
Weight of Material and Gear. — Gun Particulars and Weight. — 
Standard Gauges. — Riveted Joints and Riveting. — Strength and 
Tests of Materials. — Binding and Shearing Stresses. — Strength of 
Shafting, Pillars, Wheels, &c. — Hydraulic Data, &c. — Conic Sec- 
tions, Catenarian Curves. — Mechanical Powers, Work. — Board of 
Trade Regulations for Boilers and Engines. — Board of Trade Reg- 
ulations for Ships. — Lloyd's Rules for Boilers. — Lloyd's Weight of 
Chains. — Lloyd's Scantlings for Ships. — Data of Engines and Ves- 
sels. — Ships' Fittings and Tests. — Seasoning Preserving Timber. — 
Measurement of Timber. — Alloys, Paints, Varnishes. — Data for Stow- 
age. — Admiralty Transport Regulations. — Rules for Horse-power, 
Screw Propellers, &c. — Percentages for Butt Straps. — Particulars 
of Yachts. — Masting and Rigging. — Distances of Foreign Ports. — 
Tonnage Tables.— Vocabulary of French and English Terms. — English 
Weights and Measures. — Foregn Weights and Measures. — Decimal 
Equivalents. — Useful Numbers. — Circular Measures. — Areas of and 
Circumferences of Circles. — Areas of Segments of Circles. — Tables 
of Squares and Cubes and Roots of Numbers. — Tables of Logarithms 
of Numbers. — Tables of Hyberpolic Logarithms. — Tables of Natural 
Sines, Tangents. — Tables of Logarithmic Sines, Tangents, &c. 

WANNAN'S MARINE ENGINEER'S GUIDE 

To Board of Trade Examinations for Certificates of Competency. Con- 
taining all Latest Questions to Date, with Simple, Clear, and Correct 
Solutions; 302 Elementary Questions with Illustrated Answers, and 
Verbal Questions and Answers; complete Set of Drawings with State- 
ments completed. By A. C. Wannan, C.E., Consulting Engineer, and 
E. W. I. Wannan, M.I.M.E., Certificated First Class Marine Engineer. 
With numerous Engravings. Fourth Edition, Enlarged. 500 pages. 
8vo, cloth $4.00 

WANNAN'S MARINE ENGINEER'S POCKET=BOOK. 

Containing Latest Board of Trade Rules and Data for Marine Engineers. 
By A. C. Wannan. Third Edition, Revised, Enlarged, and Brought up 
to Date. Square 18mo, with thumb Index, leather $2.00 

MARINE ENGINES AND STEAM VESSELS. 

By R. Murray, C.E. Eighth Edition, thoroughly Revised, with Addi- 
tions by the Author and by George Carlisle, C.E. 12mo, cloth. $1.80 

ELEMENTARY MARINE ENGINEERING. 

A Manual for Young Marine Engineers and Apprentices. By J. S. 
Brewer. 12mo, cloth .60 

CHAIN CABLES AND CHAINS. 

Comprising Sizes and Curves of Links, Studs, <fcc, Iron for Cables and 
Chains, Chain Cable and Chain Making, Forming and Welding Links, 
Strength of Cables and Chains, Certificates for Cables, Marking Cables, 
Prices of Chain Cables and Chains, Historical Notes, Acts of Parlia- 
ment, Statutory Tests, Charges for Testing, List of Manufacturers of 



MARINE ENGINEERING, NAVIGATION, &*. 21 

Cables, <fec, &c. By Thomas W. Traill, F.E.R.N., M.Inst.C.E., En- 
gineer-Surveyor-in-Chief , Board of Trade, Inspector of Chain Cable and 
Anchor Proving Establishments, and General Superintendent, Lloyd's 
Committee on Proving Establishments. With numerous Tables, Illus- 
trations, and Lithographic Drawings. Polio, cloth $15.00 

THE SHIPBUILDING INDUSTRY OF GERMANY. 

Compiled and Edited by G. Lehmann-Felskowski. With Coloured 
Prints, Art Supplements, and numerous Illustrations throughout the 
text. Super-royal 4to, cloth $4.20 

SHIPS AND BOATS. 

By TV. Bland. With numerous Illustrations and Models. Tenth Edi- 
tion. 12mo, cloth # gQ 

SHIPS FOR OCEAN AND RIVER SERVICE, 

Principles of the Construction of. By H. A. Sommerfeldt. 12mo. 

.60 

AN ATLAS OF ENGRAVINGS 

To illustrate the above. Twelve large folding Plates. Royal 4to, 
doth $3.00 

NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. 

An Exposition of the Elementary Principles. By J. Peake. 12mo. 
doth $1.40 

THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SAILMAKING. 

By Samuel B. Sadler, Practical Sailmaker, late in the employment of 
Messrs. Ratsey and Lapthorne, of Cowes and Gosport. Plates. 4to, 

doth $5.0 J 

"This extremely practical work gives a complete education in all the 
branches of the manufacture, cutting out, roping, seaming, and goring. It 
s copiously illustrated, and forms a first-rate text-book and guide." 

SAILS AND SAIL=MAKING. 

With Draughting, and the Centre of Effort of the Sails. Weights and 
Sizes of Ropes; Masting, Rigging, and Sails of Steam Vessels, &c. By 
R. Kipping, N.A. 12mo, cloth 381.00 

MASTING, MAST=MAKING, AND RIGGING OF SHIPS. 

Also Tables of Spars, Rigging, Blocks; Chain, Wire, and Hemp Ropes, 
&c, relative to every class of vessels. By R. Kipping. 12mo, cloth, 

.80 
SEA TERMS, PHRASES, AND WORDS 

(Technical Dictionary of) used in the English and French Languages 
(English- French, French-English). For the Use of Seamen, Engineers, 
Pilots, Shipbuilders, Shipowners, and Ship-brokers. Compiled by W. 
Pirrie, late of the African Steamship Company. Fcap, 8vo, cloth 

H m P $2.00 

This volume will be highly appreciated by seamen, engineers, pilots, ship- 
builders and shipowners. It will be found wonderfully accurate and com- 
plete. 

SAILOR'S SEA BOOK: 

A Rudimentary Treatise on Navigation. By James Greenwood, B.A. 
With numerous Woodcuts and Coloured Plates. New and Enlarged 

Edition. By W. H. Rosser. 12mo, cloth $1.00 

Is perhaps the best and simplest epitome of navigation ever compiled. 

PRACTICAL NAVIGATION. 

Consisting of the Sailor's Sea Book, by J. Greenwood and W. H. Rosser ; 
together with Mathematical and Nautical Tables for the Working of the 
Problems, by H. Law, C.E., and Prof. J. R. Young jjgg gQ 



22 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &> SON'S CATALOGUE. 
NAVIGATION AND NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY, 

In Theory and Practice. By Prof. J. R. Young. 12mo, cloth.$1.00 
"A very complete, thorough, and useful manual for the young navigator." 

MATHEMATICAL TABLES, 

For Trigonometrical, Astronomical, and Nautical Calculations; to 
which is prefixed a Treatise on Logarithms, by H. Law, C.E. With 
Tables for Navigation and Nautical Astronomy. By Prof. J. R. Young. 
12mo, cloth $1.60 



MINING, METALLURGY, AND 
COLLIERY WORKING. 



THE OIL FIELDS OF RUSSIA AND THE RUSSIAN 

PETROLEUM INDUSTRY. 

A Practical Handbook on the Exploration, Exploitation, and Manage- 
ment of Russian Oil Properties, including Notes on the Origin of Petro- 
leum in Russia, a Description of the Tneory and Practice of Liquid 
Fuel, and a Translation of the Rules and Regulations concerning Rus- 
sian Oil Properties. By A. Beeby Thompson, A.M.I.M.E., late Chief 
Engineer and Manager of the European Petroleum Company's Russian 
Oil Properties. About 500 pp. With numerous Illustrations and 
Photographic Plates, and a Map of the Balakhany-Saboontchy-Romany 
Oil Field. Royal 8vo, cloth Net $ 7 .50 

MECHANICS OF AIR MACHINERY. 

By Dr. J. Weisbach and Prof. G. Hebrmann. Authorized Translation 
with an Appendix on American Practice by A. Trowbridge, Ph.B., 
Adjunct Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Columbia University. 

Royal 8vo, cloth [Just Published. Net $3.75 

Summary of Contents: — The Movement of Air. — Natural and Arti- 
ficial Ventilation. — Blowing-Engines; — Vacuum Pumps; Tuyeres; 
Hot-air Blast; Work Performed by Blowers; Blast-reservoirs; 
Piston-blowers. — Compressors. — Rotary Blowers. — Fans. — Recent 
American Practice, &c. 

MACHINERY FOR METALLIFEROUS MINES. 

A Practical Treatise for Mining Engineers, Metallurgists, and Managers 
of Mines. By E. Henry Davies, M.E., F.G.S. 600 pp. With Fold- 
ing Plates and other Illustrations. Medium 8vo, cloth $8.00 

"Deals exhaustively with the many and complex details which go to 
make up the sum total of machinery and other requirements for the success- 
ful working of metalliferous mines, and as a book of ready reference is of 
the highest value to mine managers and directors." — Mining Journal. 

THE DEEP LEVEL MINES OF THE RAND, 

And their Future Development, considered from the Commercial Point 
oS View. By G. A. Denny (of Johannesburg), M.N.E.I.M.E., Con- 
sulting Engineer to the General Mining and Finance Corporation, Ltd., 
of London, Berlin, Paris, and Johannesburg. Fully Illustrated with 

Diagrams and Folding Plates. Royal 8vo, buckram $10.00 

"Mr. Denny by confining himself to the consideration of the future of the 
deep-level mines of the Rand breaks new ground, and by dealing with the 
subject rather from a commercial standpoint than from a scientific one, 
appeals to a wide circle of readers. The book cannot fail to prove of very 
great value to investors in South African mines." — Mining Journal. 



MINING, METALLURGY, & COLLIERY WORKING. 23 
PROSPECTING FOR GOLD. 

A Handbook of Practical Information and Hints for Prospectors based 
on Personal Experience. By Daniel J. Rankin, F.R.S.G.S., M.R.A.S., 
formerly Manager of the Central African Company, and Leader of 
African Gold Prospecting Expeditions. With Illustrations specially 

Drawn and Engraved for the Work. Fcap. 8vo, leather J3.0l> 

" This well-compiled book contains a collection of the richest gems of use- 
ful knowledge for the prospector's benefit. A special table is given to 
ajcelerate the spotting at a glance of minerals associated with gold." — Min- 
,ng Journal. 

THE* METALLURGY OF GOLD. 

A Practical Treatise on the Metallurgical Treatment of Gold-bearing 
Ores. Including the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of Gold. By M. 
Eissler, M.Inst.M.M. Fifth Edition, Enlarged. With over 300 Illus- 
trations and numerous Folding Plates. Medium 8vo, cloth. . .^7.50 
"This book thoroughly deserves its title of a 'Practical Treatise.' The 
whole process of gold mining, from the breaking of the quartz to the assay 
of the bullion, is described in clear and orderly narrative and with much 
fulness of detail." 

THE CYANIDE PROCESS OF GOLD EXTRACTION, 

And its Practical Application on the Witwatersrand Gold Fields and 
elsewhere. By M. Eissler, M.Inst.M.M. With Diagrams and Work- 
ing Drawings, Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 8vo, cloth, 

$3.00 

"This book is just what was needed to acquaint mining men with the 

actual working of a process which is not only the most popular, but is, as 

a general rule, the most successful for the extraction of gold from tailings." 

— Mining Journal. 

DIAMOND DRILLING FOR GOLD & OTHER MINERALS. 

A Practical Handbook on the Use of Modern Diamond Core Drills in 
Prospecting and Exploiting Mineral-Bearing Properties, including Par- 
ticulars of the Costs of Aoparatus and Working. By G. A. Denny, 
M.N.E.Inst.M.E., M.Inst.M.M. Medium 8vo, 168 pp., with Illustra- 
tive Diagrams 8*5.00 

"There is certainly scopo for a work on diamond drilling, and Mr. Denny 

deserves grateful recognition for supplying a decided want." — Mining 

Journal. 



GOLD ASSAYING. 

A Practical Handbook, giving the Modus Operandi for the Accurate 
Assay of Auriferous Ores and Bullion, and the Chemical Tests required 
in the Processes of Extraction by Amalgamation, Cyanidation, and 
Chlorination. With an Apoendix of Tables and Statistics. By H. 
Joshua Phillips, F.I.C., F.C.S., Assoc Inst.C.E., Author of "Engineer- 
ing Chemistry," &c. With numerous Illustrations. 12mo, cloth. $3,00 

FIELD TESTING FOR GOLD AND SILVER. 

A Practical Manual for Prospectors and Miners. By W. H. Merritt, 
M.N.E.Inst.M.E., A.R.S.M., &c. With Photographic Plates and other 

Illustrations. Fcap. 8vo, leather St. 50 

'As an instructor of prospectors' classes Mr. Merritt has the advantage of 
knowing exactlv the information likelv to be most valuable to the miner 
in the field. The contents cover all the details for sampling and testing 
gold and silver ores. A useful addition to a prospector's kit." — Mining 
Journal. 



24 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
THE PROSPECTOR'S HANDBOOK. 

A Guide for the Prospector and Traveller in search of Metal-Bearing or 
other Valuable Minerals. By J. W. Anderson, M.A.(Camb.), F.R.G.S. 

Tenth Edition. 12mo, cloth $1.50 

"How to find commercial minerals, and how to identify them when they 

are found, are the leading points to which attention is directed." — Mining 

Journal. 

THE METALLURGY OF SILVER. 

A Practical Treatise on the Amalgamation, Roasting, and Lixiviation 
of Silver Ores. Including the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of Silver 
Bullion. By M. Eissler, M.Inst.M.M. Fifth Edition. 12mo, cloth. 

$4.00 

"A practical treatise and a technical work which we are convinced will 

supply a long-felt want amongst practical men, and at the same time be of 

value to students and others indirectly connected with the industries." — 

Mining Journal. 

THE HYDRO=METALLURGY OF COPPER. 

Being an Account of Processes Adopted in the Hydro-Metallurgical 
Treatment of Cupriferous Ores, Including the Manufacture of Copper 
Vitriol, with Chapters on the Sources of Supply of Copper and the 
Roasting of Copper Ores. By M. Eissler, M.Inst.M.M. 8vo, cloth, 

$4.50 
"In this volume the various processes for the extraction of copper by wet 
methods are fully detailed. Costs are given when available, and a great 
deal of useful information about the copper industry of the world is pre- 
sented in an interesting and attractive manner." — Mining Journal. 

THE METALLURGY OF ARGENTIFEROUS LEAD. 

A Practical Treatise on the Smelting of Silver- Lead Ores and the Refin- 
ing of Lead Bullion. Including Reports on various Smelting Estab- 
lishments and Descriptions of Modern Smelting Furnaces and Plants 
in Europe and America. By M. Eissler, M.Inst.M.M. 12mo, cloth 

$5.00 

"The numerous metallurgical processes, which are fully and extensively 
treated of, embrace all the stages experienced in the passage of the lead 
from the various natural states to its issue from the refinery as an article 
of commerce." — Practical Engineer. 

METALLIFEROUS MINERALS AND MINING. 

By D. C. Davies, F.G.S. Sixth Edition, thoroughly Revised and much 
Enlarged by his Son, E. Henry Davies, M.E., F.G.S. 600 pp., with 

173 Illustrations. 8vo, cloth Net $5.00 

"Neither the practical miner nor the general reader, interested in mines, 
can have a better book for his companion and his guide." — Mining Journal. 

EARTHY AND OTHER MINERALS AND MINING. 

Bv D. C. Davies, F.G.S., Author of "Metalliferous Minerals," &c. 
Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged by his Son, E. Henry Davies, 
M.E., F.G.S. With about 100 Illustrations. 12mo, cloth $5.00 

BRITISH MINING. 

A Treatise on the Historv, Discovery, Practical Development, and 
Future Prospects of Metalliferous Mines in the United Kingdom. By 
Robert Hunt, F.R.S., late Keeper of Mining Records. Upwards of 
950 pp., with 230 Illustrations. Second Edition, Revised. Super-royal 
8vo, cloth $15.00 

POCKET=BOOK FOR MINERS AND METALLURGISTS. 

Comprising Rules, Formula?, Tables, and Notes for Use in Field and 
Office Work. By F. Danvers Power, F.G.S., M.E. Second Edition, 
Corrected. Fcap. 8vo, leather $3.50 



MINING, METALLURGY, 6- COLLIERY WORKING. 25 
THE MINER'S HANDBOOK. 

A Handy Book of Reference on the subjects of Mineral Deposits, Mining 
Operations, Ore Dressing, &c. For the Use of Students and others in- 
terested in Mining Matters. Compiled by John Milne, F.R.S., Pro- 
fessor of Mining in the Imperial University of Japan. Third Edition. 
Fcap. 8vo, leather , $3.00 

IRON ORES of GREAT BRITAIN and IRELAND. 

Their Mode of Occurrence, Age and Origin, and the Methods of Searching 
for and Working Them. With a Notice of some of the Iron Ores of 
Spain. By J. D. Kendall, F.G.S., Mining Engineer. 12mo, cloth 

$6.00 
METALLURGY OF IRON. 

Containing History of Iron Manufacture, Methods of Assay, and Analy- 
ses of Iron Ores, Processes of Manufacture of Iron and Steel, &c. By 
H. Bauerman, F.G.S., A.R.S.M. With numerous Illustrations. Sixth 

Edition, revised and enlarged. 12mo, cloth $2.00 

' ' Carefully written, it has the merit of brevity and conciseness, as to less 

important points; while all material matters are very fully and thoroughly 

entered into." — Standard. 

MINE DRAINAGE. 

A Complete Practical Treatise on Direct-Acting Underground Steam 
Pumping Machinery. By Stephen Michell. Second Edition, Re- 
written and Enlarged. With 250 Illustrations. Royal 8vo, cloth. 

$10.00 
HORIZONTAL PUMPING ENGINES— Rotary and Non-Rotart 
Horizontal Engines. — Simple and Compound Steam Pumps. — VERTI- 
CAL PUMPING ENGINES.— Rotary and Non-Rotary Vertical 
Engines. — Simple and Compound Steam Pumps. — Triple-Expansion 
Steam Pumps. — Pulsating Steam Pumps. — Pump Valves. — -Sinking 
Pumps, &c, &c. 

ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO MINING. 

By Arnold Lupton, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.M.E., M.I.E.E., late Professor of 
Coal Mining at the Yorkshire College, Victoria University, Mining En- 
gineer and Colliery Manager; G. D. Aspinall Parr, M.I.E.E., A.M.I. 
M.E., Associate of the Central Technical College, City and Guilds of 
London, Head of the Electrical Engineering Department, Yorkshire 
College, Victoria University; and Herbert Perkin, M.I.M.E., Certifi- 
cated Colliery Manager, Assistant Lecturer in the Mining Department of 
the Yorkshire College, Victoria University. With about 170 Illustra- 
tions. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Medium 8vo, cloth. 

[Just Published.'] $4.50 
(For Summary of Contents, see page 28.) 

THE COLLIERY MANAGER'S HANDBOOK. 

A Comprehensive Treatise on the Laying-out and Working of Collieries, 
Designed as a Book of Reference for Colliery Managers, and for the 
Use of Coal-Mining Students preparing for First-class Certificates. By 
Caleb Pamely, Mining Engineer and Surveyor; Member of the North 
of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers ; and Member 
of the South Wales Institute of Mining Engineers. With over 1,000 
Diagrams, Plans, and other Illustrations. Fifth Edition, Carefully 
Revised and Greatly Enlarged. 1,200 pp. Medium 8vo, cloth. $10.00 
Geology. — Search for Coal. — Mineral Leases and other Holdings. — 
Shaft Sinking. — Fitting Up the Shaft and Surface Arrangements. — 
Steam Boilers and their Fittings. — Timbering and Walling. — Narrow 
Work and Methods of Working. — Underground Conveyance. — Drain- 
age. — The Gases met with in Mines; Ventilation. — On the Friction of 
Air in Mines. — The Priestman Oil Engine; Petroleum and Natural 
Gas. — Surveying and Planning. — Safety Lamps and Firedamp Detect- 
ors. — Sundry and Incidental Operations and Appliances. — Colliery 
Explosions. — Miscellaneous Questions and Answers. — Appendix: 
Summary of Report of H.M. Commissioners on Accidents in Mines. 



2 6 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &» SON'S CATALOGUE. 
PRACTICAL COAL=MINING. 

An Elementary Class-Book for the Use of Students attending Classes in 
Preparation for the Board of Education and County Council Examina- 
tions, or Qualifying for First or Second Class Colliery Managers' (cer- 
tificates. By. T. H. Cockin, Member ol the Institution of Mining 
Engineers, Certificated Colliery Manager, Lecturer on Coal-Mining at 
Sheffield University College. With Map of the British Coal-fields and 
over 200 Illustrations specially Drawn and Engraved for the Work. 
440 pp., 12mo, cloth $2.50 

COLLIERY WORKING AND MANAGEMENT. 

Comprising the Duties of a Colliery Manager, the Oversight and Arrange- 
ment of Labour and Wages, and the different Systems of Working Coal 
Seams. By H. F. Bulman and R. A. S. Redmaynb. 350 pp., with 
28 Plates and other Illustrations, including Underground Photographs. 
Medium 8vo, cloth Net $6.00 

NOTES AND FORMUL/E FOR MINING STUDENTS. 

By John Herman Merivale, M.A., Late Professor of Mining in the 
Durham College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Fourth Edition, 
Revised and Enlarged. By H. F. Bulman, A.M. Inst. C.E. 12mo, 

doth $1.00 

"The author has done his work in a creditable manner, and has produced 

a book that will be of service to students and those who are practically 

engaged in mining operations." — Engineer. 

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY OF MINING. 

An Elementary Class-Book for the use of Students preparing for the 
Board of Education and County Council Examinations in Mining, or 
Qualifying for Colliery Managers' Certificates. By T. H. Byrom, 
Chemist to the Wigan Coal and Iron Co., Ltd., &c. With Illustrations. 
12mo, cloth [Just Published.] $1.50 

MINING CALCULATIONS. 

For the use of Students Preparing for the Examinations for Colliery 
Managers' Certificates, comprising Numerous Rules and Examples in 
Arithmetic, Algebra, and Mensuration. By T. A. O'Donahue, M.E., 
First-class Certificated Colliery Manager. 12mo, cloth $1.50 

COAL AND COAL MINING. 

By the late Sir Warington W. Smyth, M.A., F.R.S. Eighth Edition, 
Revised and Extended by T. Forster Brown, Chief Inspector of the 
Mines of the Crown and of the Duchy of Cornwall. 12mo, cloth, {jjjl .40 

INFLAMMABLE GAS AND YAPOUR IN THE AIR 

(The Detection and Measurement of). By Frank Clowes, D.Sc, 
Lond., F.I.C. With a Chapter on The Detection and Measurement 
of Petroleum Vapour, by Boverton Redwood, F.R.S.E. 12mo, 

cloth $2.50 

"Professor Clowes has given us a volume on a subject of much industrial 
importance. . . Those interested in these matters may be recommended 
to study this book, which is easy of comprehension and contains many good 
things." — The Engineer. 

COAL & IRON INDUSTRIES of the UNITED KINGDOM. 

Comprising a Description of the Coal Fields and of the Principal Seams 
of Coal, with Returns of their Produce and its Distribution, and Analyses 
of Special Varieties. Also, an Account of the Occurrence of Iron Ore 
in Veins or Seams; Analyses of each Variety; and a History of the 
Rise and Progress of Pig Iron Manufacture. By Richard Meade. 8vo, 
cloth $10.00 



MINING, METALLURGY, &■ COLLIERY WORKING. 27 
MINING TOOLS, 

Manual of. By W. Morgans, Lecturer on Mining at the Bristol School 

of Mines. 12mo, cloth §51.00 

Atlas of Engravings to the above, containing 235 Illustrations drawn 
to Scale. 4to $1.80 

SLATE AND SLATE QUARRYING. 

Scientific, Practical, and Commercial. By D. C. Davies, F.G.S., Min- 
ing Engineer, &c. With numerous Illustrations and Folding Plates 
Fourth Edition. 12mo, cloth $1.20 

A FIRST BOOK OF MINING AND QUARRYING. 

By J. H. Collins, F.G.S. Crown 8vo, cloth .60 

ASBESTOS AND ASBESTIC. 

Their Properties, Occurrence, and Use. By Robert H. Jones, F.S.A. 
Mineralogist, Hon. Mem. Asbestos Club, Black Lake, Canada. With 
Ten Collotype Plates and other Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth. $6.40 

GRANITES AND OUR GRANITE INDUSTRIES. 

By George F. Harris, F.G.S. With Illustrations. 12mo, cloth. $1.00 

MINERAL SURVEYOR AND VALUER'S GUIDE. 

Comprising a Treatise on Improved Mining Surveying and the Valuation 
of Mining Properties, with New Traverse Tables. By W. Lintern, C.E. 

Fourth Edition, enlarged. 12mo, cloth $1.40 

"Contains much valuable information, and is thoroughly trustworthy." — 
Iron and Coal Trades Review. 

TRAVERSE TABLES. 

For use in Mine Surveying. By William Lintern, C.E. With two 
plates. Small crown 8vo, cloth Net $1.50 

SUBTERRANEOUS SURVEYING. 

By T. Fenwick. Also the Method of Conducting Subterraneous Sur- 
veys without the use of the Magnetic Needle, &c. By T.Baker. 12mo, 

$1.00 
MINERALOGY, 

Rudiments of. By A. Ramsay, F.G.S. Fourth Edition. Woodcuts 
and Plates. 12mo, cloth $1.40 

PHYSICAL GEOLOGY, 

Partly based on Major-General Portlock's "Rudiments of Geology." 
By Ralph Tate, A.L.S., &c. Woodcuts. 12mo, cloth .80 

HISTORICAL GEOLOGY, 

Partly based on Major-General Portlock's "Rudiments." By Ralph 
Tate. 12mo, cloth $1.00 

GEOLOGY, 

Physical and Historical. Consisting of "Physical Geology," which 
sets forth the Leading Principles of the Science; and "Historical Geol- 
ogy," which treats of the Mineral and Organic Conditions of the Earth 
at each successive epoch. By R. Tate. 12mo, cloth $1.80 



28 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &• SON'S CATALOGUE. 



ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL 
ENGINEERING, ETC. 



THE ELEMENTS OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING. 

A First Year's Course for Students. By Tyson Sewell, A.I.E.E., 
Assistant Lecturer and Demonstrator in Electrical Engineering at the 
Polytechnic, Regent Street, London. Third Edition, Revised and En- 
larged, including an Appendix of Questions and Answers. 460 pages, 
with 274 Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth. . . . [Just Published.] $3.00 
Ohm's Law. — Units Employed in Electrical, Engineering. — Series, 
and Parallel Circuits; Current Density and Potential Drop in the. 
Circuit. — The Heating Effect of the Electric Current. — The Mag- 
netic Effect of an Electric Current. — The Magnetisation of Iron. — 
Electro-Chemistry ; Primary Batteries. — Accumulators. — Indicat- 
ing Instruments; Ammeters, Voltmeters, Ohmmeters. — Electricity 
Supply Meters. — Measuring Instruments, and the Measurement of 
Electrical Resistance. — Measurement of Potential Difference 
Capacity Current Strength, and Permeability. — Arc Lamps. — Incan- 
descent Lamps, Manufacture and Installation; Photometry. — The 
Continuous Current Dynamo. — Direct Current Motors. — Alternating 
Currents. — Transformers, Alternators, Synchronous Motors.— Poly- 
phase Working. — Appendix of Questions and Answers. 

ELEMENTARY ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 

In Theory and Practice. A Class-book for Junior and Senior Students 
and Working Electricians. By J. H. Alexander, M.B., A.I.E.E 
With 181 Illustrations. 12mo, cloth [Just Published. $1.50 

THE ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION OF ENERGY. 

A Manual for the Design of Electrical Circuits. By Arthur Vaughan 
Abbott, C.E., Member American Institute of Electrical Engineers, 
Member American Institute of Mining Engineers, Member American 
Society of Civil Engineers, Member American Society of Mechanical 
Engineers, &c. With Ten Folding Diagrams and Sixteen Full-page 
Engravings. Fourth Edition, entirely Re-Written and Enlarged. 
Royal 8vo, cloth Net $5.00 

ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO MINING. 

By Arnold Lupton, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.M.E., M.I.E.E., late Professor of 
Coal Mining at the Yorkshire College, Victoria University, Mining En- 
gineer and Colliery Manager; G. D. Aspinall Parr, M.I.E.E., A.M.I. 
M.E., Associate of the Central Technical College, City and Guilds of 
London, Head of the Electrical Engineering Department, Yorkshire 
College, Victoria University; and Herbert Perkin, M.I.M.E., Cer- 
tificated Colliery Manager, Assistant Lecturer in the Mining Depart- 
ment of the Yorkshire College, Victoria University. With about 170 
Illustrations. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Medium 8vo, 

cloth [ Just Published. $4.50 

Introductory. — Dynamic Electricity. — Driving of the Dynamo. — 
The Steam Turbine. — Distribution of Electrical Energy. — Starting 
and Stopping Electrical Generators and Motors. — Electric Cables. — ■ 
Central Electrical Plants. — Electricity applied to Pumping and 
Hauling. — Electricity applied to Coal-cutting. — Typical Electric 
Plants Recently Erected. — Electric Lighting by Arc and Glow 
Lamps. — Miscellaneous Applications of Electricity. — Electricity as 
Compared with other modes of Transmitting Power. — Dangers of 
Electricity. 



ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, &°c. 29 
CONDUCTORS FOR ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION. 

Their Materials and Manufacture, The Calculation of Circuits, Pole-Line 
Construction, Underground Working, and other Uses. By F. A. C. 
Perrine, A.M., D.Sc; formerly Professor of Electrical Engineering, 
Leland Stanford, Jr., University; M.Amer.I.E.E. 8vo, cloth. 

Net $3.50 
Conductor Materials. — Alloyed Conductors. — Manufacture of 
Wire. — Wire-Finishing. — Wire Insulation — Cables. — Calculation of 
Circuits. — Kelvin's Law of Economy in Conductors. — Multiple Arc 
Distribution. — Alternating Current Calculation. — Overhead Lines. 
— Pole Line. — Line Insulators. — Underground Conductors. 

DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY: its CONSTRUC= 

TION, DESIGN, and OPERATION. 

By Samuel Sheldon, A.M., Ph.D., Professor of Physics and Electrical 
Engineering at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, assisted by H. 
Mason. B.S. 

In two volumes, sold separately, as follows: — 
Vol. I.— DIRECT CURRENT MACHINES. Fifth Edition, Revised. 

8vo. 280 pages, with 200 Illustrations ^ ei $2.50 

Vol. II— ALTERNATING CURRENT MACHINES. 8vo. 260 pages, 

with 184 Illustrations Net $2,50 

Designed as Text-books for use in Technical Educational Institutions, and 
by Engineers whose work includes the handling of Direct and Alternating 
Current Machines respectively, and for Students proficient in mathematics. 

DYNAMO, MOTOR AND SWITCHBOARD CIRCUITS 
FOR ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS. 

A Practical Book dealing with the subject of Direct, Alternating and 
Polyphase Currents. By William R. Bowker, C.E., M.E., E.E., Con- 
sulting Tramway Engineer. 8vo, cloth $2.25 

"Mr. Bowker's book consists chiefly of diagrams of connections, with short 
explanatory notes, there are over 100 diagrams, and the cases considered 
cover all the more important circuits, whether in direct current, single- 
phase, or polyphase work." — Nature. 

ARMATURE WINDINGS OF DIRECT CURRENT 
DYNAMOS. 

Extension and Application of a General Winding Rule. By E. Arnold, 
Translated from the German by F. B. De Grees. 8vo, cloth. $2.00 

POWER TRANSMITTED BY ELECTRICITY, 

And applied by the Electric Motor, including Electric Railway Con- 
struction. By P. Atkinson, A.M., Ph.D. Third Edition, Fully Re- 
vised, and New Matter added. With 94 Illustrations. 12mo, cloth. 

$2.00 
DYNAMO CONSTRUCTION. 

A Practical Handbook for the Use of Engineer-Constructors and Elec- 
tricians-in-Charge. Embracing Framework Building, Field Magnet and 
Armature Winding and Grouping, Compounding, &c. By J. W. Urqu- 
hart. Second Edition, Enlarged, with 114 Illustrations. 12mo, cloth. 

$3.00 
HOW TO MAKE A DYNAMO. 

A Practical Treatise for Amateurs. Containing Illustrations and De- 
tailed Instructions for Constructing a Small Dynamo to Produce the 
Electric Light. By Alfred Crofts. Seventh Edition. 12mo, cloth. 

.80 
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY; 

Its Origins, Development, Inventions, and Apparatus. By Charles 
Henry Sewall. With 85 Diagrams and Illustrations. 8vo, cloth. 

Net $2.00 



30 CROSBY L0CKW00D &> SON'S CATALOGUE. 
SUBMARINE TELEGRAPHS; 

Their History, Construction, and Working. Founded in part on Won- 
schendorff t s "Traite' de Telegraphie Sous-Marine," and Compiled from 
Authoritative and Exclusive Sources. By Charles Bright, F.R.S.E. 
A.M.Inst.CE., M.I.E.E. 780 pp., fully Illustrated, including Maps and 
Folding Plates. Royal 8vo, cloth $25.00 

ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC CALCULATIONS. 

For the Use of Electrical Engineers and Artisans, Teachers, Students, 
and all others interested in the Theory and Application of Electricity 
and Magnetism. By Prof. A. A. Atkinson, Ohio University. 12mo, 
cloth $1.50 

"To teachers and those who already possess a fair knowledge of their sub- 
ject we can recommend this book as being usefuito consult when requiring 
data or formulae which it is neither convenient nor necessary to retain by 
memory." — The Electrician, 

THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEER'S POCKET=BOOK. 

Consisting of Rules, Formulae, Tables, and Data. By H. R. Kemfe, 
M.I.E.E., A.M.Inst.CE., Technical Officer Postal Telegraphs, Author 
of "A Handbook of Electrical Testing." Second Edition. 32mo, 
leather $1.75 

ELECTRIC LIGHTING (ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF). 

By Alan A. Campbell Swinton, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.E.E. Sixth Edition. 
With 16 Illustrations. 12mo, cloth # gQ 

ELECTRIC LIGHT. 

Its Production and Use, Embodying Plain Directions for the Treatment 
of Dynamo-Electric Machines, Batteries, Accumulators, and Electric 
Lamps. By J. W. Urquhart, C.E. Seventh Edition. 12mo, cloth. 

$3.00 

ELECTRIC LIGHT FOR COUNTRY HOUSES. 

A Practical Handbook on the Erection and Running of Small Installa- 
tions, with Particulars of the Cost of Plant and Working. By J. H. 
Knight. Fourth Edition, Revised. 12mo, boards ,50 

ELECTRIC LIGHT FITTING. 

A Handbook for Working Electrical Engineers, embodying Practical 
Notes on Installation Management. By J. W. Urquhart. With 
numerous Illustrations. Fourth Edition, Revised. 12mo, cloth. $g, 00 

ELECTRIC SHIP=LIGHTING. 

A Handbook on the Practical Fitting and Running of Ships' Electrical 
Plant. For the Use of Shipowners and Builders, Marine Electricians, 
and Seagoing Engineers-in-Charge. By J. W. Urquhart, C.E. Third 
Edition, Revised and Extended. With 88 Illustrations, 12mo, 
cloth $3.00 

DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. 

By Philip Atkinson, A.M., Ph.D., Author of "Elements of Static 
Electricity," &c. Crown, 8vo, 417 pp., with 120 Illustrations, cloth 

$2.00 

THE STUDENT'S TEXT=BOOK OF ELECTRICITY. 

By H. M. Noad, F.R.S. 650 pp., with 470 Illustrations. 12mo, 
cloth $4.00 



ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, &c. 31 

ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, ETC. 



SPECIFICATIONS IN DETAIL. 

By Frank W. Macey, Architect, Author of "Conditions of Contract." 
Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged, containing 644 pp., and 2,000 

Illustrations. Royal 8vo, cloth $8.00 

Summary op Contents: — General, Notes (including Points in Speci- 
fication Writing, The Order op a Specification, and Notes on Items 
often Omitted from a Specification). — Form op Outside Cover to a 
Specification. — Specification of Works and List op General Condi- 
tions. — Preliminary Items (including Shoring and House Breaker). 
— Drainage (including Rain-water Wells and Reports). — Excavator 
(including Concrete Floors, Roofs, Stairs, and Walls). — Pavior. — 
Bricklayer (including Flintwork, River, and other Walling, Spring- 
water Wells, Storage Tanks, Fountains, Filters, Terra Cotta and 
Faience). — Mason. — Carpenter, Joiner, and Ironmonger (including 
Fencing and Piling). — Smith and Founder (including Heating, Fire 
Hydrants, Stable and Cow-house Fittings). — Slater (including Slate 
Mason). — Tiler. — Stone Tiler. — Shingler. — Thatcher. — Plumber (in- 
cluding Hot-water Work). — Zincworker. — Coppersmith. — Plasterer. 
— Gasfitter. — Bellhanger'. — Glazier. — Painter. — Paperhanger. — 
General Repairs and Alterations. — Ventilation. — Road-making. — 
Electric Light. — Index. 

PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 

A Handbook for Students Preparing for Examinations, and a Book 
of Reference for Persons Engaged in Building. By John Parnell 
Allen, Surveyor, Lecturer on Building Construction at the Durham 
College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Fourth Edition, Revised and 
Enlarged. Medium 8vo, 570 pp., with over 1,000 Illustrations, cloth, 

$3.00 

SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURE. 

A Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder. Upon 
the Basis of the Work by A. Bartholomew, Revised, by F. Rogers. 
8vo, cloth $6.00 

SCIENCE OF BUILDING: 

An Elementary Treatise on the Principles of Construction. By E. 
Wyndham Tarn, M.A.Lond. Fourth Edition. 12mo, cloth. $1.40 

ART OF BUILDING, 

Rudiments of. General Principles of Construction, Character, Strength, 
and Use of Materials, Preparation of Specifications and Estimates, &c. 
By Edward Dobson, M.Inst.C.E. Fifteenth Edition, revised by J. P. 
Allen, Lecturer on Building Construction at the Durham College of 
Science. 12mo, cloth .80 

BOOK ON BUILDING, 

Civil and Ecclesiastical. By Sir Edmund Beckett, Bart., LL.D. 
Second Edition. 12mo, cloth $1.80 

BUILDING ESTATES: 

A Treatise on the Development, Sale, Purchase, and Management of 
Building Land. By F. Maitland. Fourth Edition. 12mo, cloth, 

.80 

COTTAGE BUILDING. 

By C. Bruce Allen. Twelfth Edition, with Chapter on Economic 
Cottages for Allotments by E. E. Allen, C.E. 12mo, cloth.. .80 



32 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &> SON'S CATALOGUE. 
DWELLING=HOUSES, 

Erection of, illustrated by a Perspective View, Plans, Elevations, and 
Sections of a Pair of Villas, with the Specification, Quantities, and 
Estimates. By S. H. Brooks. 12mo, cloth $1.00 

FARM BUILDINGS: 

Their Arrangement and Construction, with Plans and Estimates. By 
Professor J. Scott. 12mo, cloth .80 

SHORING, 

And its Application. By G. H. Blagrove. Crown 8vo, cloth. .60 

ARCHES, PIERS, BUTTRESSES. 

By William Bland. 12mo, cloth .60 

PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING. 

General Principles of Bricklaying; Arch Drawing, Cutting, and Setting; 
Pointing; Paving, Tiling, <fec. By Adam Hammond. With 68 Wood- 
cuts. 12mo, cloth .60 

ART OF PRACTICAL BRICK=CUTTING AND SETTING. 

By Adam Hammond. With 90 Engravings. 12mo, cloth. . . . .60 

BRICKWORK: 

Embodying the General and Higher Principles of Bricklaying, Cutting, 
and Setting; with the Application of Geometry to Roof Tiling, &c. 

By F. Walker. 12mo, cloth .60 

"Contains all that a student needs to learn from books. — Building News." 

BRICKS AND TILES, 

Rudimentary Treatise on the Manufacture of. Containing an Outline 
of the Principles of Brickmaking. By E. Dobson, M.R.I.B.A. Addi 
tions by C. Tomlinson, F.R.S. Illustrated. 12mo, cloth $1.20 

PRACTICAL BRICK AND TILE BOOK. 

Comprising: Brick and Tile Making, by E. Dobson, M.Inst.C.E. ; Prac- 
tical Bricklaying by A. Hammond, Brick-Cutting and Setting, by A. 
Hammond. 550 pp., with 270 Illustrations, strongly half -bound . $2.40 

PRACTICAL MASONRY. 

A Guide to the Art of Stone Cutting. Comprising the Construction, 
Setting-Out, and Working of Stairs, Circular Work, Arches, Niches, 
Domes, Pendentives, Vaults, Tracery Windows, &c; to which are 
added Supplements relating to Masonry Estimating and Quantity Sur- 
veying, and to Building Stones and Marbles, and a Glossary of Terms. 
For the Use of Students, Masons, and Craftsmen. By W. R. Purchase, 
Building Inspector to the Borough of Hove. Fifth Edition, Enlarged. 
Royal 8vo, 226 pp., with 52 Plates, comprising over 400 Diagrams, 
cloth $3.00 

MASONRY AND STONECUTTING, 

The Principles of Masonic Projection, and their Application to Con- 
struction. By E. Dobson, M.R.I.B.A. 12mo, cloth $1.00 

MODERN LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS. 

An Illustrated Supplement to the Report of the Lightning Research 
Committee of 1905, with Notes as to the Methods of Protection, and 
Specifications. By Killingworth Hedges, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.E.E., 
Honorary Secretarv to the Lightning Research Committee, Author of 
"American Street Railways." Medium 8vo, cloth 

[Just Published Net $3.00 

"The illustrations are very interesting and give one a clear idea of what 

is likely to happen when a building is struck by lightning. Mr. Hedges' 

suggestions of possible reasons why certain protected buildings were struck 



ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, &c. 33 

are instructive. He also explains the modern methods of fitting buildings 
with lightning conductors. To the ordinary reader the book will be of in- 
terest, and to anyone who has to design a system for protecting a building 
from lightning strokes it will be helpful " — Builder. 

PLUMBING: 

A Text-Book to the Practice of the Art or Craft of the Plumber. With 
Chapters upon House Drainage and Ventilation. By Wm. Paton 
Buchan. Ninth Edition, with 512 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth. 

$1.40 

HEATINQ BY HOT WATER, 

VENTILATION AND HOT WATER SUPPLY. 

By Walter Jones, M.I.M.E. 360 pages, with 140 Illustrations. 
Medium 8vo, cloth $2.50 

THE PRACTICAL PLASTERER: 

A Compendium of Plain and Ornamental Plaster Work. By W. Kemp. 
12mo, cloth .80 

CONCRETE: ITS NATURE AND USES. 

A Book for Architects, Builders, Contractors, and Clerks of Works. By 
G L Sutcliffe, A.R.I.B.A. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 
396 pp., with Illustrations. 12mo, cloth. .. .[Just Published. $3.50 

PORTLAND CEMENT FOR USERS. 

By the late Henry Faija, M.Inst.C.E. Fifth Edition. Revised and 
Enlarged by D. B. Butler, A.M.Inst.C.E. 12mo, cloth $1.20 

LIMES, CEMENTS, MORTARS, CONCRETES, MASTICS, 
PLASTERING, &c. 

By G. R. Burnell, C.E. Fifteenth Edition. 12mo, cloth .60 

MEASURING AND VALUING ARTIFICERS' WORK 

(The Student's Guide to the Practice of). Containing Directions for 
taking Dimensions, Abstracting the same, and bringing the Quantities 
into Bill, with Tables of Constants for Valuation of Labour, and for the 
Calculation of Areas and Solidities. Originally edited by E. Dobson, 
Architect. With Additions by E. W. Tarn, M.A. Seventh Edition, 
Revised. 12mo, cloth $3.00 

QUANTITIES AND MEASUREMENTS, 

In Bricklayers', Masons', Plasterers', Plumbers', Painters', Paper 
hangers', Gilders', Smiths', Carpenters' and Joiners' Work. By A. C 

Beaton, Surveyor. 12mo, cloth .60 

"This book is indispensable to builders and their quantity clerks." — Eng' 
lish Mechanic. 

TECHNICAL GUIDE, MEASURER, AND ESTIMATOR. 

For Builders and Surveyors. Containing Technical Directions for Meas- 
uring Work in all the Building Trades, Complete Specifications for 
Houses, Roads, and Drains, and an Easy Method of Estimating the 
parts of a Building collectively. By A. C. Beaton. Tenth Edition. 

Waistcoat-pocket size .60 

"No builder, architect, surveyor, or valuer should be without his 
'Beaton.' " — Building News. 

COMPLETE MEASURER; 

Setting forth the Measurement of Boards, Glass, Timber, and Stone. 
By R. Horton. Sixth Edition. 12mo, cloth $1.60 

ARCHITECTURAL PERSPECTIVE. 

The whole Course and Operations of the Draughtsman in Drawing a 
Large House in Linear Perspective. Illustrated by 43 Folding Plates. 
By F. O. Ferguson. Third Edition. 8vo, boards $1.50 



34 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
PERSPECTIVE FOR BEGINNERS 

For Students and Amateurs in Architecture, Painting, &c. By G. 
Pyne. Crown 8vo, cloth ,80 

PRACTICAL RULES ON DRAWING. 

For the Builder and Young Student in Architecture. By G. Pyne. 4to 

$3.00 
THE MECHANICS OF ARCHITECTURE. 

A Treatise on Applied Mechanics, especially Adapted to the Use of 
Architects. By E. W. Tarn, M.A., Author of "The Science of Build- 
ing," &c. Second Edition, Enlarged. Illustrated with 125 Diagrams. 

12mo, cloth $3.00 

' ' The book is a very useful and helpful manual of architectural mechan- 
ics." — Builder. 

A HANDY BOOK OF VILLA ARCHITECTURE. 

Being a Series of Designs for Villa Residences in various Styles. With 
Outline Specifications and Estimates. By C. Wickes, Architect, Au- 
thor of "The Spires and Towers of England," &c. 61 Plates, 4to, half- 
morocco, gilt edges $12.00 

DECORATIVE PART OF CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 

By Sir Willi am Chambers, F.R.S. With Portrait, Illustrations, Notes, 
and an Examination op Grecian Architecture, by Joseph Gwilt, 
F.S.A. Revised and Edited by W. H. Leeds. 66 Plates, 4to, cloth. 

$8.40 

HINTS TO YOUNG ARCHITECTS. 

By George Wightwick, Architect, Author of "The Palace of Archi- 
tecture," &c, &c. Sixth Edition, revised and enlarged by G. Huskis- 
son Guillaume, Architect. 12mo, cloth $1.40 

THE ARCHITECTS' GUIDE. 

Being a Text-book of Useful Information for Architects, Engineers, Sur- 
veyors, Contractors, Clerks of Works, &c. By F. Rogers. 12mo, 

$1.40 
ARCHITECTURE— ORDERS. 

The Orders and their ^Esthetic Principles. By W. H. Leeds. 12mo. 

.60 
ARCHITECTURE— STYLES. 

The History and Description of the Styles of Architecture of Various 
Countries, from the Earliest to the Present Period. By T. Talbot 
Bury, F.R.I.B.A., &c. Illustrated. 12mo, cloth .80 

"Orders and Styles of Architecture," in One Vol $1.40 

ARCHITECTURE— DESIGN. 

The Principles of Design in Architecture, as deducible from Nature and 
exemplified in the Works of the Greek and Gothic Architects. By Edw. 
L. Garbett, Architect. 12mo, cloth $1.00 

"We know no work that we would sooner recommend to an attentive 
reader desirous to obtain clear views of the nature of architectural art. The 
book is a valuable one." — Builder. 

*#* The three preceding Works in One handsome Vol., half-bound, entitled 
"Modern Architecture," price $2.40 

ARCHITECTURAL MODELLING IN PAPER, 

The Art of. By T. A. Richardson. 12mo, cloth # 60 



SANITATION AND WATER SUPPLY. 35 

VITRUVIUS-THE ARCHITECTURE OF MARCUS 

VITRUVIUS POLLIO. 

In Ten Books. Translated from the Latin by J. Gwilt. With 23 
Plates. 12mo, cloth $2.00 

N.B. — This is thejonly Edition of Vitruvius procurable at a moderate price. 

GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE, 

An Inquiry into the Principles of Beauty in ; with an Historical View 
of the Rise and Progress of the Art in Greece. By the Earl of Aber- 
deen .40 

*#* The two preceding Works in One handsome Volume, half-bound, entitled 
"Ancient Architecture," price $2.40 

ACOUSTICS OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS: 

The Laws of Sound as applied to the Arrangement of Buildings. By 
Professor T. Rogers Smith, F.R.I.B.A. New Edition, revised. With 
numerous Illustrations. 12mo, cloth # g0 

LIGHT: 

An Introduction to the Science of Optics. Designed for the Use of 
Students of Architecture, Engineering, and other Applied Sciences. By 
E. W. Tarn, M.A. 12mo, cloth .60 



SANITATION AND WATER SUPPLY. 



THE HEALTH OFFICER'S P0CKET=B00K. 

A Guide to Sanitary Practice and Law. For Medical Officers of Health, 
Sanitary Inspectors, Members of Sanitary Authorities, &c. By Edward 
F. Willoughby, M.D. (Lond.), &c. Second Edition, Revised and En- 
larged. Fcap. 8vo, leather $4.00 

THE WATER SUPPLY OF TOWNS AND THE CON- 
STRUCTION OF WATER-WORKS. 

By Professor W. K. Burton, A.M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition, Re- 
vised and Extended. Royal 8vo, cloth. (See page 12.) $9.00 

THE WATER SUPPLY OF CITIES AND TOWNS. 

By William Humber, A.M.Inst.C.E., and M.Inst.M.E. Imp. 4to, half- 
bound morocco. (See page 12.) $45.00 

WATER AND ITS PURIFICATION. 

A Handbook for the Use of Local Authorities, Sanitary Officers, and 
others interested in Water Supply. By S. Rideal, D.Sc. Lond., F.I.C. 
Second Edition, Revised, with Additions, including numerous Illustra- 
tions and Tables. 12mo, cloth $3.00 

RURAL WATER SUPPLY. 

A Practical Handbook on the Supply of Water and Construction of 
Water-works for Small Country Districts. By Allan Greenwell, 
A.M.I. C.E. , and W. T. Curry, A.M.I.C.E. Revised Edition. 12mo, 
cloth $2.00 

WATER ENGINEERING. 

A Practical Treatise on the Measurement, Storage, Conveyance, ana 
Utilisation of Water for the Supply of Towns. By C. Slagg, A.M. 
Inst.C.E $3.00 



36 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
THE PURIFICATION OF SEWAGE. 

Being a Brief Account of the Scientific Principles of Sewage Purifica- 
tion, and their Practical Application. By Sidney Barwise, M.D 
(Lond.), B.Sc, M.R.C.S., D.P.H. (Camb.), Fellow of the Sanitary In- 
stitute, Medical Officer of Health to the Derbyshire County Council. 
Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged, with an Appendix on the Analy- 
sis of Sewage and Sewage Effluents. With numerous Illustrations and 

Diagrams. Demy 8vo, eloth Net $3.50 

Summary of Contents: — Sewage: Its Nature and Composition. — 
The Chemistry of Sewage. — Varieties of Sewage and the Changes it 
Undergoes.— River Pollution and its Effects. — The Land Treatment 
of Sewage. — Precipitation, Precipitants, and Tanks. — The Liquefac- 
tion of Sewage. — Principles involved in the Oxidation of Sewage. — 
Artificial Processes of Purification. — Automatic Distributors and 
Special Filters. — Particulars of Sewerage and Sewage Disposal 
Schemes required by Local Government Board. — Useful Data. — Ap- 
pendix: The Apparatus required for Sewage Analysis. — Standard 
Solutions used in the Method of Sewage Analysis. — Tables: Esti- 
mation of Ammonia. — Nitrogen as Nitrates. — Incubator Test, Oxygen 
Absorbed. — To Convert Grains per Gallon to Parts per 100,000. 

SANITARY WORK IN SMALL TOWNS AND VILLAGES. 

By Charles Slagg, A.M. Inst. C.E. Third Edition, Enlarged. 12mo 
cloth $3.00 

VENTILATION: 

A Text-Book to the Practice of the Art of Ventilating Buildings. By 
W. P. Buchan. With 170 Illustrations. 12mo, cloth $1.40 



CARPENTRY, TIMBER, ETC. 



PRACTICAL FORESTRY. 

And its Bearing on the Improvement of Estates. By Charles E. 
Curtis, F.S.I., Professor of Forestry, Field Engineering, and General 
Estate Management, at the College of Agriculture, Downton. Second 

Edition, Revised. 12mo, cloth $1 ,40 

Prefatory Remarks. — Objects of Planting. — Choice of a Forester. 
— Choice of Soil and Site. — Laying Out of Land for Plantations. — 
Preparation of the Ground for Planting. — Drainage. — Planting. — 
Distances and Distribution of Trees in Plantations. — Trees and 
Ground Game. — Attention after Planting. — Thinning of Plantations. 
— Pruning of Forest Trees. — Realization. — Methods of Sale. — 
Measurement of Timber. — Measurement and Valuation of Larch's 
Plantation. — Fire Lines. — Cost of Planting. 

WOODWORKING MACHINERY. 

Its Rise, Progress, and Construction. With Hints on the Management 
of Saw Mills and the Economical Conversion of Timber. Illustrated 
with Examples of Recent Designs by leading English, French, and 
American Engineers. By M. Powis Bale, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.Mech.E. 
Second Edition, Revised, with large Additions. 8vo, 440 pp., cloth, 

$3.50 

SAW MILLS. 

Their Arrangement and Management, and the Economical Conversion 
of Timber. By M. Powis Bale, M.Inst.C.E., M.I.Mech.E. Second 
Edition, Revised. 12mo, cloth $4.00 



CARPENTRY, TIMBER, &c. 37 

THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY. 

A Treatise on the Pressure and Equilibrium of Timber Framing, the 
Resistance of Timber, and the Construction of Floors, Arches, Bridges, 
Roofs, Uniting Iron and Stone with Timber, &c. To which is added 
an Essay on the Nature and Properties of Timber, &c, with Descrip- 
tions of the kinds of Wood used in Building; also numerous Tables 
of the Scantlings of Timber for different purposes, the Specific Gravi- 
ties of Materials, &c. By Thomas Tredgold, C.E. With an Appendix 
of Specimens of Various Roofs of Iron and Stone, Illustrated. Seventh 
Edition, thoroughly Revised and considerably Enlarged by E. Wynd- 
ram Tarn, M.A., Author of "The Science of Building," &c. With 
61 Plates, Portrait of the Author, and several Woodcuts. In One 
- large Vol., 4to, cloth $10.00 

THE CARPENTER'S GUIDE. 

Or, Book of Lines for Carpenters; comprising all the Elementary Prin- 
ciples essentia] for acquiring a knowledge of Carpentry. Founded on 
the late Peter Nicholson's standard work. A New Edition, Revised 
by Arthur Ashpitel, F.S.A. Together with Practical Rules on 
Drawing, by George Pyne. With 74 Plates, 4to, cloth $7.50 

CARPENTRY AND JOINERY— 

The Elementary Principles of Carpentry. Chiefly composed from the 
Standard Work of T. Tredgold. With Additions and a Treatise on 
Joinery by E. W. Tarn, M.A. Eighth Edition. 12mo, cloth. $1.40 

Atlas of 35 Plates to accompany and illustrate the foregoing book. 

With Descriptive Letterpress. 4to $2.40 

ROOF CARPENTRY: 

Practical Lessons in the Framing of Wood Roofs. For the use of 
Working Carpenters. By Geo. Collings. 12mo, cloth # gjj 

CIRCULAR WORK IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 

A practical Treatise on Circular Work of Single and Double Curvature. 
By George Collings. Fourth Edition. 12mo, cloth $1.00 

HANDRAILINQ COMPLETE IN EIGHT LESSONS. 

On the Square-Cut System. By J. S. Goldthorp, Teacher of Geometry 
and Building Construction at the Halifax Mechanics' Institute. With 
Eight Plates and over 150 Practical Exercises. 4to, cloth. . . .$1.40 

PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HANDRAILING: 

Showing New and Simple Methods. By Geo. Collings. Third Edi- 
tion, including a Treatise on Stairbuilding. 12mo, cloth $1.00 

THE CABINET=MAKER'S GUIDE TO THE ENTIRE 
CONSTRUCTION OF CABINET WORK. 

By Richard Bitmead. Illustrated with Plans, Sections and Working 
Drawings. 12mo, cloth $1.00 

THE JOINTS MADE AND USED BY BUILDERS. 

By W. J. Christy. With 160 Woodcuts. 12mo, cloth $1.20 

TIMBER IMPORTER'S, TIMBER MERCHANT'S, AND 
BUILDER'S STANDARD GUIDE. 

By R. E. Grandy. 12mo, cloth .g0 

TIMBER MERCHANT'S and BUILDER'S COMPANION. 

Containing New and Copious Tables of the Reduced Weight and 
Measurement of Deals and Battens of all sizes and other Useful Tables 
for the use of Timber Merchants and Builders. By William Dowsing. 
Fifth Edition, Revised and Corrected. 12mo, cloth $1.20 



38 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &• SON'S CATALOGUE. 
THE PRACTICAL TIMBER MERCHANT. 

Being a Guide for the Use of Building Contractors, Surveyors, Builders, 
&c, comprising useful Tables for all purposes connected with the 
Timber Trade, Marks of Wood, Essay on the Strength of Timber, 
Remarks on the Growth of Timber, &c. By W. Richardson. Second 
Edition. Fcap. 8vo, cloth $1.40 

PACKING=CASE TABLES. 

Showing the number of Superficial Feet in Boxes or Packing-Cases, 
from six inches square and upwards. By W. Richardson, Timber 
Broker. Fourth Edition. Oblong 4to, cloth $1.40 

GUIDE TO SUPERFICIAL MEASUREMENT. 

Tables calculated from 1 to 200 inches in length, by 1 to 108 inches in 
breadth. For the use of Architects, Surveyors, Engineers, Timber 
Merchants, Builders, &c. By J. Hawkings. Fifth Edition. 12mo, 
cloth $1.40 



DECORATIVE ARTS, ETC. 



SCHOOL OF PAINTING FOR THE IMITATION OF 
WOODS AND MARBLES. 

As Taught and Practised by A. R. Van der Burg and P. Van der 
Burg, Directors of the Rotterdam Painting Institutions. Royal folio 
18£ by 12£ in., Illustrated with 24 full-size Coloured Plates; also 12 
plain Plates, comprising 154 Figures. Fourth Edition, cloth. 

Net $10.00 
List of Plates. 
1. Various Tools Required for Wood Painting. — 2,3. Walnut: Pre- 
liminary Stages of Graining and Finished Specimen. — 4. Tools Used 
for Marble Painting and Method of Manipulation. — 5, 6. St. Remi 
Marble; Earlier Operations and Finished Specimen. — 7. Methods of 
Sketching Different Grains, Knots, &c. — 8, 9. Ash: Preliminary 
Stages and Finished Specimen. — 10. Methods of Sketching Marble 
Grains. — 11,12. Breche Marble; Preliminary Stages of Working and 
Finished Specimen. — 13. Maple; Methods of Producing the Different 
Grains. — 14, 15. Bird's-Eye Maple; Preliminary Stages and Finished 
Specimen. — 16. Methods of Sketching the Different Species of White 
Marble. — 17, 18. White Marble; Preliminary Stages of Process and 
Finished Specimen. — 19. Mahogany; Specimens of Various Grains and 
Methods of Manipulation. — 20. 21, Mahogany; Earlier Stages and 
Finished Specimen. — 22, 23, 24. Sienna Marble; Varieties of Grain, 
Preliminary Stages and Finished Specimen. — 25, 26, 27. Juniper Wood; 
Methods of Producing Grain, &c. ; Preliminary Stages and Finished 
Specimen. — 28, 29, 30. Vert de Mer Marble; Varieties of Grain and 
Methods of Working, Unfinished and Finished Specimens. — 31, 32, 33. 
Oak; Varieties of Grain, Tools Employed and Methods of Manipu- 
lvtion, Preliminary Stages and Finished Specimen. — 34, 35, 36. Waul- 
sort Marble; Varieties of Grain, Unfinished and Finished Specimens. 

ELEMENTARY DECORATION: 

As Applied to Dwelling-Houses, &c. By J. W. Facey. 12mo, cloth. 

80 

PRACTICAL HOUSE DECORATION. 

A Guide to the Art of Ornamental Painting, the arrangement of Colours 
in Apartments, and the Principles of Decorative Design. By James W. 

Facey. 12mo, cloth $1.00 

*** The last two works in One handsome Vol., half -bound, entitled "House 
Decoration, Elementary and Practical," price $2.00 



DECORATIVE ARTS, &c. 39 

ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS, ANCIENT & MEDI/EVAL. 

p'rom the Eighth Century with Numerals; including Gothic. Church- 
Text, large and small, German, Italian, Arabesque, Initials for Illum- 
ination, Monograms, Crosses, &c, for the use of Architectural and En- 
gineering Draughtsmen, Missal Painters, Masons, Decorative Painters, 
Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers, &c, &c. Collected and Engraved 
by F. Dblamotte, and printed in Colours. New and Cheaper Edition. 
Royal 8vo, oblong, ornamental boards $1.00 

MODERN ALPHABETS, PLAIN AND ORNAMENTAL. 

Including German, Old English/ Saxon, Italic, Perspective, Greek, 
Hebrew, Court Hand Engrossing, Tuscan, Riband, Gothic, Rustic, and 
Arabesque ; with several Original Designs, and an Analysis of the Roman 
and Old English Alphabets, large and small, and Numerals, for the use 
of Draughtsmen, Surveyors, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithog- 
raphers, Engravers, Carvers, &c. Collected and Engraved by F. Dela- 
motte, and printed in Colours. New and Cheaper Edition. Royal 8vo, 
oblong, ornamental boards $1.00 

MEDI/EVAL ALPHABETS AND INITIALS. 

By F. G. Delamotte. Containing 21 Plates and Illuminated Title 
printed in Gold and Colours. "With an Introduction by J. Willis 
Brooks. Fifth Edition. Small 4to, ornamental boards $2.00 

A PRIMER OF THE ART OF ILLUMINATION. 

For the Use of Beginners; with a Rudimentary Treatise on the Art, 
Practical Directions for its Exercise, and Examples taken from Illumi- 
nated MSS., printed in Gold and Colours. By F. Delamotte. New 
and Cheaper Edition. Small 4to, ornamental boards $2.40 

THE EMBROIDERER'S BOOK OF DESIGN. 

Containing Initials, Emblems, Cyphers, Monograms, Ornamental Bor- 
ders, Ecclesiastical Devices, Mediaeval and Modern Alphabets, and 
National Emblems. Collected by F. Delamotte, and printed in 
Colours. Oblong royal 8vo, ornamental wrapper $1.00 

MARBLE DECORATION 

And the Terminology of British and Foreign Marbles. A Handbook 
for Students. By George H. Blagrove, Author of "Shoring and its 
Application," &c. With 28 Illustrations. 12mo, cloth $1.40 

THE DECORATOR'S ASSISTANT. 

A Modern Guide for Decorative Artists and Amateurs, Painters, Writers, 
Gilders, &c. Containing upwards of 600 Receipts, Rules, and Instruc- 
tions; with a variety of Information for General Work connected with 
every Class of Interior and Exterior Decorations, &c. Eight Edition 
1 2mo .40 

GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 

Applied to Decorative Painting and the Arts. By G. Field. New 
Edition, enlarged by E. A. Davidson. With Coloured Plates. 12mo, 
doth $1.20 

HOUSE PAINTING, GRAINING, MARBLING, AND 

SIGN WRITING. 

With a Course of Elementary Drawing, and a Collection of Useful 
Receipts. By E. A. Davidson. Ninth Edition. Coloured Plates. 
12mo, cloth $2.00 

ART OF LETTER PAINTING MADE EASY. 

By J. G. Badenoch. With 12 full-page Engravings of Examples. 12mo, 

.60 



4 o CROSBY LOCKWOOD &■ SON'S CATALOGUE. 
PAINTING POPULARLY EXPLAINED. 

By Thomas John Gullick, Painter, and John Timbs, F.S.A. Includ- 
ing Fresco, Oil, Mosaic, Water Colour, Water-Glass, Tempera, En- 
caustic, Miniature, Painting on Ivory, Vellum, Pottery, Enamel, Glass, 

&c. Sixth Edition. 12mo, cloth $2.00 

*#* Adopted as a Prize Book at South Kensington. 

GLASS STAINING, AND PAINTING ON GLASS. 

From the German of Dr. Gessert and Emanuel Otto Fromberg. 
With an Appendix on The Art of Enamelling. 12mo, cloth. .$1.00 

WOOD=CARVING FOR AMATEURS. 

With Hints on Design. By A Lady. With 10 Plates. New and 
Cheaper Edition. 12mo, in emblematic wrapper ,^0 



NATURAL SCIENCE, ETC. 



THE VISIBLE UNIVERSE. 

Chapters on the Origin and Construction of the Heavens. By J. E. 
Gore, F.R.A.S., Author of "Star Groups," &c. Illustrated by 6 
Stellar Photographs and 12 Plates. Demy 8vo, cloth $3.75 

STAR GROUPS. 

A Student's Guide to the Constellations. By J. Ellard Gore, F.R.A.S. 
M.R.I. A., &c, Author of "The Visible Universe," "The Scenery of the 
Heavens," &c. With 30 Maps. Small 4to, cloth $2.00 

AN ASTRONOMICAL GLOSSARY. 

Or, Dictionary of Terms used in Astronomy. With Tables of Data and 
Lists of Remarkable and Interesting Celestial Objects. By J. Ellard 
Gore, F.R.A.S. 12mo, cloth $1.00 

ASTRONOMY. 

By the late Rev. R. Main, M.A., F.R.S. Third Edition, revised by 
William Thynne Lynn, B.A., F.R.A.S. 12mo, cloth ,80 

THE MICROSCOPE. 

Its Construction and Management. Including Technique, Photo-micro- 
graphy, and the Past and Future of the Microscope. By Dr. Henri 
van Hetjrck, Re-Edited and Augumented from the Fourth French 
Edition, and Translated by Wynne E. Baxter, F.G.S. Imp. 8vo, 
cloth $7.00 

MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA : 

A Treatise on Recent and Fossil Shells. By Dr. S. P. Woodward, 
A.L.S. With Appendix by Ralph Tate, A.L.S., F.G.S. With 
numerous Plates and 300 Woodcuts. 12mo, cloth, $3.00 

THE TWIN RECORDS OF CREATION. 

Or, Geology and Genesis, their Perfect Harmony and Wonderful Con- 
cord. By G. W. V. le Vaux. 8vo, cloth $2.00 

LARDNER'S HANDBOOKS OF SCIENCE. 
HANDBOOK OF MECHANICS. 

Enlarged and re-written by B. Loewy, F.R.A.S. 8vo, cloth . -$2.40 



CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES, CHEMISTRY, &c. 41 

LARDNER'S HANDBOOKS OF SCIENCE— Continued. 

HANDBOOK OF HYDROSTATICS AND PNEU= 
MATICS. 

Revised and Enlarged by B. Loewy, F.R.A.S. Post 8vo, cloth, $2.00 

HANDBOOK OF HEAT. 

Edited and re-written by B. Loewy, F.R.A.S. Post 8vo, cloth, $2.40 

HANDBOOK OF OPTICS. 

New Edition. Edited by T. Olver Harding, B.A. Small 8vo, 
doth $2.00 

"ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, AND ACOUSTICS. 

Edited by Geo. C. Foster, B.A. Small 8vo, cloth $2.00 

HANDBOOK OF ASTRONOMY. 

Revised and Edited by Edwin Dunkin, F.R.A.S. 8vo, cloth, $3.80 

MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART. 

With upwards of 1,200 Engravings. In Six Double Vols, cloth, $7.50 
Half -morocco $12.60 

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR SCHOOLS. .. $1.40 

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY FOR SCHOOLS $1.40 

THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. 

Revised by E. B. Bright, F.R.A.S. Fcap. 8vo, cloth $1.00 



CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES, 
CHEMISTRY, ETC. 



THE OIL FIELDS OF RUSSIA AND THE RUSSIAN 

PETROLEUM INDUSTRY. 

A Practical Handbook on the Exploration, Exploitation, and Manage- 
ment of Russian Oil Properties, including Notes on the Origin of 
Petroleum in Russia, a Description of the Theory and Practice of 
Liquid Fuel, and a Translation of the Rules and Regulations concern- 
ing Russian Oil Properties. By A. Beeby Thompson, A.M.I.M.E., 
late Chief Engineer and Manager of the European Petroleum Company's 
Russian Oil Properties. About 500 pp., with numerous Illustrations 
and Photographic Plates, and a Map of the Balakhany-Saboontchy- 
Romany Oil Field. Super-royal 8vo, cloth Net $7.50 

THE ANALYSIS OF OILS AND ALLIED SUBSTANCES. 

By A. C. Wright, M.A.Oxon., B.Sc, Lond., formerly Assistant Lecturer 
in Chemistry at the Yorkshire College, Leeds, and Lecturer in Chemis- 
try at the Hull Technical School. Demy 8vo, cloth $3.50 

A HANDYBOOK FOR BREWERS. 

Being a Practical Guide to the Art of Brewing and Malting. Embracing 
the Conclusions of Modern Research which bear upon the Practice of 
Brewing. By Herbert Edwards Wright, M.A. Third Edition, 
Enlarged. 530 pp. 12mo, cloth In press 

A POCKET=BO0K OF MENSURATION AND GAUGING. 

Containing Tables, Rules, and Memoranda for Revenue Officers, 
Brewers, Spirit Merchants, &c. By J. B. Mant, Inland Revenue. 
Second Edition, Revised. 18mo, leather $1.60 



42 CROSBY LOCKWOOD 6- SON'S CATALOGUE. 
THE QAS ENGINEER'S POCKET=BOOK. 

Comprising Tables, Notes and Memoranda relating to the Manufacture, 
Distribution and Use of Coal Gas and the Construction of Gas Works. 
By H. O'Connor, A.M. Inst.C.E. Second Edition, Revised. 470 pp., 
12mo. fully Illustrated, leather $3.50 

LIGHTING BY ACETYLENE 

Generators, Burners, and Electric Furnaces. By William E. Gibbs, 
M.E. With 66 Illustrations. 12mo, cloth. , $1.50 

ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY. 

A Practical Treatise for the Use of Analytical Chemists, Engineers, 
Iron Masters, Iron Founders, Students and others. Comprising 
Methods of Analysis and Valuation of the Principal Materials used in 
Engineering Work, with numerous Analyses, Examples and Suggestions, 
By H. Joshua Phillips, F.I.C., F.C.S. Third Edition, Revised and 
Enlarged. 12mo, 420 pp., withJPlates and Illustrations, cloth, $4.50 

NITRO=EXPLOSIVES. 

A Practical Treatise concerning the Properties, Manufacture, and 
Analysis of Nitrated Substances, including the Fulminates, Smokeless 
Powders, and Celluloid. By P. Gerald Sanford, F.I.C., Consulting 
Chemist to the Cotton Powder Company, Limited, &c. With Illustra- 
tions. 12mo, cloth $3.00 

A HANDBOOK OF MODERN EXPLOSIVES. 

A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture and Use of Dynamite, Gun- 
Cotton, Nitro-Glycerine and other Explosive Compounds, including 
Collodion-Cotton. With Chapters on Explosives in Practical Applica- 
tion. By M. Eissler, M.E. Second Edition, Enlarged. 12mo, cloth, 

$5.00 

DANGEROUS GOODS. 

Their Sources and Properties, Modes of Storage and Transport. With 
Notes and Comments on Accidents arising therefrom. A Guide for 
the Use of Government and Railway Officials, Steamship Owners, &c. 
By H. Joshua Phillips, F.I.C., F.C.S. 12mo, 374 pp. : cloth, $3.50 

"Merits a wide circulation, and an intelligent, appreciative study." — 
Chemical News. 

A MANUAL OF THE ALKALI TRADE. 

Including the Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, Sulphate of Soda, and 
Bleaching Powder. By John Lomas, Alkali Manufacturer. With 
232 Illustrations and Working Drawings. Second Edition, with 
Additions. Super-royal, 8vo, cloth $10.00 

THE BLOWPIPE IN CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, Etc. 

Containing all known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many Working 
Examples, and Instructions for Making Apparatus. By Lieut. -Colonel 
W. A. Ross, R.A., F.G.S. Second Ed., Enlarged. Ll2mo, cloth, $2.00 

THE MANUAL -OF COLOURS AND DYE= WARES. 

Their Properties, Applications, Valuations, Impurities and Sophistica- 
tions. For the Use of Dyers, Printers, Drysalters, Brokers, &c. By 
J. W. Slater. Second Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged. 12mo, 

cloth $3.00 

" There is no other work which covers precisely the same ground. To 

students preparing for examinations in dyeing and printing it will prove 

exceedingly useful." — Chemical News. 



INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 43 

THE ARTISTS' MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. 

Showing their Composition, Conditions of Permanency, Non- Per- 
manency, and Adulterations, <fec, with Tests of Purity. By H. C. 

Standage. Third Edition. 12mo, cloth $1.00 

" This work is indeed multum-in-parvo , and we can, with good conscience, 

recommend it to all who come in contact with pigments, whether as makers, 

dealers, or users. " — Chemical Review. 



INDUSTRIAL ARTS, TRADES, AND 
MANUFACTURES. 



THE CULTIVATION AND PREPARATION OF PARA 

RUBBER. 

By W. H. Johnson, F.L.S., F.R.H.S.j Director of Agriculture, Gold 
Coast Colony, West Africa, Commissioned by Government in 1902 to 
visit Ceylon to Study the Methods employed there in the Cultivation 
and Preparation of Para Rubber and other Agricultural Staples for 
Market, with a view to Introduce them into West Africa. Demy 8vo, 

cloth $3.00 

Summary of Contents: — Introductory. — The Para Rubber Treb 
(Hevea brasiliensis) at Home and Abroad. — Cultivation of the Tree;— 
Propagation. — Site for Plantation. — Distance Apart to Plant 
the Trees. — Transplanting. — Cultivation. — Insect Pests and 
Fungoid Diseases. — Collecting the Rubber: — Various Methods 
Employed in Tapping Rubber Trees. — Flow of Latex Increased by 
Wounding the Tree. — How to Tap. — The Preparation of Rubber 
from the Latex: — Latex. — Various Methods Employed in the Prep- 
aration of Rubber. — Suggested Method for Preparing Rubber. — 
Scrap Rubber. — Yield of Para Rubber from Cultivated Trees: — 
Ceylon. — Malay Peninsula. — Gold Coast, West Africa. — Establish- 
ment and Maintenance of a Para Rubber Plantation: — Ceylon. — 
Malay Peninsula. — Commercial Value of the Oil in Hevea Seeds. 

RUBBER HAND STAMPS 

And the Manipulation of Rubber. A Practical Treatise on the Manu- 
facture of India-rubber Hand Stamps, Small Articles of India-rubber, 
The Hektograph, Special Inks, Cements, and Allied Subjects. By 
T. O'Conor Sloane, A.M., Ph.D. With numerous llllustrations. 
Square 8vo, cloth $1.00 

PRACTICAL PAPER=MAKING. 

A Manual for Paper-Makers and Owners and Managers of Paper-Mills. 
With Tables, Calculations, &c. By G. Clapperton, Paper-Maker. 
With Illustrations of Fibres from Micro-Photographs. 12mo, cloth, 

$2.00 
THE ART OF PAPER=MAKING. 

A Practical Handbook of the Manufacture of Paper from Rags, Esparto, 
Straw, and other Fibrous Materials. Including the Manufacture of 
Pulp from Wood Fibre, with a Description of the Machinery and 
Appliances used. To which are added Details of Processes for Recover- 
ing Soda from Waste Liquors. By Alexander Watt. With Illus- 
trations. 12mo, cloth $3.00 

A TREATISE ON PAPER. 

For Printers and Stationers. With an Outline of Paper Manufacture; 
Complete Tables of Sizes, and Specimens of Different Kinds of Paper. 
By Richard Parkinson, late of the Manchester Technical School. 
Demy 8vo, cloth $1.40 



44 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &° SON'S CATALOGUE. 
THE ART OF SOAP=MAKING. 

A Practical Handbook of the Manufacture of Hard and Soft Soaps, 
Toilet Soaps, &c. Including many new Processes, and a Chapter on 
the Recovery of Glycerine from Waste Leys. By Alexander Watt. 
Sixth Edition, including an Appendix on Modern Candlemaking. 

12mo, cloth $3.00 

"A thoroughly practical treatise. We congratulate the author on the 

success of his endeavour to fill a void in English technical literature." — 

Nature. 

"The work will prove very useful, not merely to the technological student, 

but to the practical soap boiler who wishes to understand the theory of his 

art." — Chemical News. 

THE ART OF LEATHER MANUFACTURE. 

A Practical Handbook, in which the Operations of Tanning, Currying, 
and Leather Dressing are fully Described, and the Principles of Tanning 
Explained. Together with a Description of the 'Arts of Glue Boiling, 
Gut Dressing, &c. By Alexander Watt. Fifth Edition, thoroughly 
Revised and Enlarged. 8vo, cloth .Nearly ready, $4.00 

ART OF BOOT AND SHOEMAKING, 

Including Measurement, Last-fitting, Cutting-out, Closing, and Making; 
with a Description of the most Approved Machinery employed. By 

J. B. Leno. 12mo, cloth .80 

"By far the best work ever written on the subject." — Scottish Leather 
Trader. 

COTTON MANUFACTURE. 

A Manual of Practical Instruction of the Processes of Opening, Carding, 
Combing, Drawing, Doubling and Spinning of Cotton, the Methods of 
Dyeing, &c. For the use of Operatives, Overlookers, and Manu- 
facturers. By John Lister, Technical Instructor, Pendleton. 8vo, 
cloth, $3.00 

' ' A distinct advance in the literature of cotton manufacture." — Machinery 
"It is thoroughly reliable, fulfilling nearly all the requirements desired." 
Glasgow Herald. 

WATCH REPAIRING, CLEANING, AND ADJUSTING. 

A Practical Handbook dealing with the Materials and Tools Used and 
the Methods of Repairing, Cleaning, Altering, and Adjusting all kinds 
of English and Foreign Watches, Repeaters, Chronographs, and Marine 
Chronometers. By F. J. Garrard, Springer and Adjuster of Marine • 
Chronometers and Deck Watches for the Admiralty. With over 200 
Illustrations. 12mo, cloth $2.00 

MODERN HOROLOGY, IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. 

Translated from the French of Claudius Saunier, ex-Director of the 
School of Horology at Macon, by Julien Tripplin, F.R.A.S., Besancon 
Watch Manufacturer, and Edward Rigg, M.A., Assayer in the Royal 
Mint. With Seventy-eight Woodcuts and Twenty-two Coloured 
Copper Plates. Second Edition. Super-royal, 8vo, cloth . . . . $15.00 
Half-calf $18.00 

THE WATCHMAKER'S HANDBOOK. 

Intended as a Workshop Companion for those engaged in Watchmaking 
and the Allied Mechanical Arts. Translated from the French of 
Claudius Saunier, and enlarged by Julien Tripplin, F.R.A.S., and 
Edward Rigg, M.A., Assayer in the Royal Mint. Fourth Edition 
12mo, cloth $3.00 



INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 45 

CLOCKS, WATCHES, & BELLS for PUBLIC PURPOSES. 

A Rudimentary Treatise. By Edmund Beckett, Lord Grimthorpe, 
LL.D., K.C., F.R.A.S. Eighth Edition, with new List of Great Bells 
and an Appendix on Weathercocks. 12mo, cloth $1.80 

HISTORY OF WATCHES & OTHER TIMEKEEPERS. 

By James F. Kendal, M. B.H.Inst. m QQ boards ; or cloth, gilt, $1.00 

ELECTRO=PLATING & ELECTRO=REFINING of METALS. 

Being a new edition of Alexander Watt's "Electro-Deposition." 
Revised and Largely Rewritten by Arnold Philip, B.Sc, A.I.E.E., 
Principal Assistant to the Admiralty Chemist. 8vo, cloth. . . .$4.50 

ELECTROPLATING. 

A Practical Handbook on the Deposition of Copper, Silver, Nickel, Gold, 
Aluminium, Brass, Platinum, &c, &c. By J. W. Urquhart, C.E. 
Fifth Edition, Revised. 12mo, cloth $2.00 

ELECTR0=METALLURGY, 

Practically Treated. By Alexander Watt. Tenth Edition, enlarged 
and revised. With Additional Illustrations, and including the most 
Recent Processes. 12mo, cloth $1.40 

GOLDSMITH'S HANDBOOK, 

Containing full Instructions in the Art of Alloying, Melting, Reducing, 
Colouring, Collecting, and Refining. The Processes of Manipulation, 
Recovery of Waste, Chemical and Physical Properties of Gold; Solders, 
Enamels, and other useful Rules and Recipes, &c. By George E. 
Gee. Sixth Edition. 12mo, cloth $1.20 

SILVERSMITH'S HANDBOOK, 

On the same plan as the above. By George E. Gee. Third Edition. 

12mo, cloth $1.20 

*** The two preceding Works, in One handsome Volume, half-bound, en- 
titled "The Goldsmith's and Silversmith's Complete Handbook," $2.80 

JEWELLER'S ASSISTANT IN WORKING IN GOLD. 

A Practical Treatise for Masters and Workmen, Compiled from the 
Experience of Thirty Years' Workshop Practice. By George E. Gee. 
12mo, $3.00 

HALL=MARKING OF JEWELLERY. 

Comprising an account of all the different Assay Towns of the United 
Kingdom, with the Stamps at present employed ; also the Laws relating 
to the Standards and Hall-marks at the Various Assay Offices. By 
George E. Gee. 12mo, cloth $1.20 

ELECTROTYPING. 

The Reproduction and Multiplication of Printing Surfaces and Works 
of Art by the Electro-Deposition of Metals. By J. W. Urquhart, C.E. 
12mo, cloth $2.00 

MECHANICAL DENTISTRY: 

A Practical Treatise on the Construction of the Various Kinds of 
Artificial Dentures, comprising also Useful Formulae, Tables and 
Receipts. By C. Hunter. 12mo, cloth $1.20 

BRASS FOUNDER'S MANUAL: 

Instructions for Modelling, Pattern Making, Moulding, Turning, &c. 
By W. Graham, 12mo, cloth ,80 



46 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE 
SHEET METAL WORKER'S INSTRUCTOR. 

Comprising a Selection of Geometrical Problems and Practical Rules 
for Describing the Various Patterns Required by Zinc, Sheet-Iron, 
Copper, and Tin-Plate Workers. By Reuben Henry Warn. Piactical 
Tin-Plate Worker. New Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged by 
Joseph G. Horner, A.M.I.M.E. 12mo, 254 pp.. with 430 Illustra- 
tions, cloth S3. 00 

SHEET METAL= WORKER'S GUIDE. 

A Practical Handbook for Tinsmiths, Coppersmiths, Zincworkers, &c . 
with 46 Diagrams and Working Patterns. By W. J. E. Crane. Fourth 
Edition. 12mo, cloth m QQ 

GAS FITTING: 

A Practical Handbook. By John Black. Revised Edition. With 
130 Illustrations. 12mo, cloth $1.00 

" It is written in a simple, practical style, and we heartily recommend it." 
— Plumber and Decorator. 

TEA MACHINERY AND TEA FACTORIES. 

A Descriptive Treatise on the Mechanical Appliances required in the 
Cultivation of the Tea Plant and the Preparation of Tea for the Market. 
By A. J. Wallis-Tayler, A.M. Inst. C.E. Medium 8vo, 468 pp. With 
218 Illustrations $10.00 

Summary of Contents. 

Mechanical Cultivation or Tillage of the Soil. — Plucking or 
Gathering the Leaf. — Tea Factories. — The Dressing, Manufacture, 
or Preparation of Tea by Mechanical Means. — Artificial Wither- 
ing of the Leaf. — Machines for Rolling or Curling the Leaf. — Fer- 
menting Process. — Machines for the Automatic Drying or Firing 
of the leaf. — Machines for Non-Automatic Drying or Firing of the 
Leaf. — Drying or Firing Machines. — Breaking or Cutting, and Sort- 
ing Machines. — Packing the Tea. — Means of Transport on Tea Plan- 
tations. — Miscellaneous Machinery and Apparatus. — Final Treat- 
ment of the Tea. — Tables and Memoranda. 

FLOUR MANUFACTURE. 

A Treatise on Milling Science and Practice. By Friedrich Kick, 
Imperial Regierungsrath, Professor of Mechanical Technology in the 
Imperial German Polytechnic Institute, Prague. Translated from the 
Second Enlarged and Revised Edition. By H. H. P. Powles, A.M. 
Inst.C.E. 400 pp., with 28 Folding Plates, and 167 Woodcuts. Royal 
8vo, cloth $10.00 

ORNAMENTAL CONFECTIONERY. 

A Guide for Bakers, Confectioners and Pastrycooks; including a 
variety of Modern Recipes, and Remarks on Decorative and Coloured 
Work. With 129 Original Designs. By Robert Wells. 12mo, cloth, 

$2.00 

BREAD & BISCUIT BAKER'S & SUGAR=BOILER'S 

ASSISTANT. 

Including a large variety of Modern Recipes. With Remarks on the 
Art of Bread-making. By Robert Wells. Fourth Edition. 12mo, 
cloth .50 

PASTRYCOOK & CONFECTIONER'S GUIDE. 

For Hotels, Restaurants, and the Trade in general, adapted also for 
Family Use. By R. Wells, Author of ' ' The Bread and Biscuit Baker." 

.40 



INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 47 

MODERN FLOUR CONFECTIONER. 

Containing a large Collection of Recipes for Cheap Cakes, Biscuits, &c. 
With remarks on the Ingredients Used in their Manufacture. By R. 
Wells .40 

SAVOURIES AND SWEETS 

Suitable for Luncheons and Dinners. By Miss M. L. Allen (Mrs. A. 
Macaire), Author of "Breakfast Dishes," &c. Thirtieth Edition. F'cap 
8vo, sewed # 4Q 

BREAKFAST DISHES 

""For Every Morning of Three Months. By Miss Allen (Mrs. A. 
Macaire), Author of "Savouries and Sweets," &c. Twenty-second 
Edition. F'cap 8vo, sewed .40 

MOTOR CARS OR POWER CARRIAGES FOR COMMON 
ROADS. 

By A. J. Wallis-Tayler, A.M.Inst. C.E. 12mo, cloth $1.80 

FRENCH POLISHING AND ENAMELLING. 

A Practical Book of Instruction, including numerous Recipes from mak- 
ing Polishes, Varnishes, Glaze Lacquers, Revivers, &c. By R. Bit- 
mead. 12mo, cloth # g0 

CEMENTS, PASTES, GLUES, AND GUMS. 

A Guide to the Manufacture and Application of Agglutinants for 
Workshop, Laboratory, or Office Use. With 900 Recipes and Formulae. 
By H. C. Standage. Crown 8vo, cloth # 8Q 

PRACTICAL ORGAN BUILDING. 

By W. E. Dickson, M.A., Precentor of Ely Cathedral. Second Edition, 
Revised. 12mo, cloth $1.00 

COACH=BUILDING: 

A Practical Treatise, Historical and Descriptive. By. J. W. Burgess. 
12mo, cloth $1.00 

SEWING MACHINERY. 

Construction, History, Adjusting, &c. By J. W. Urquhart. 12mo, 
cloth .80 

WOOD ENGRAVING: 

A Practical and Easy Introduction to the Study of the Art. By W. N. 
Brown. 12mo, cloth 60 

LAUNDRY MANAGEMENT. 

A Handbook for Use in Private and Public Laundries. 12mo, cloth 

.80 
CONSTRUCTION OF DOOR LOCKS. 

From the Papers of A. C. Hobbs. Edited by Charles Tomlinson, 
F.R.S. With a Note upon Iron Safes by Robert Mallet. 12mo, 
cloth $1.00 



48 CROSBY LOCKWOOD br SON'S CATALOGUE. 
HANDYBOOKS FOR HANDICRAFTS. 

BY PAUL N. HASLUCK, 

Author of "Lathe Work," &c. 12mo, 144 pp., price 50c. each. 
^W These Handybooks have been written to supply information for Work- 
men, Students, and Amateurs in the several Handicrafts, on the actual 
Practice of the Workshop, and are intended to convey in plain language 
Technical Knowledge of the several Crafts. In describing the processes 
employed, and the manipulation of material, workshop terms are used; work- 
shop practice is fully explained; and the text is freely illustrated with drawings 
of modern tools, appliances, and processes. 



METAL TURNER'S HANDYBOOK. 

A Practical Manual for Workers at the Foot-Lathe. With 100 Illus- 
trations .50 

WOOD TURNER'S HANDYBOOK. 

A Practical Manual for Workers at the Lathe. With over 100 Illus- 
trations .50 

WATCH JOBBER'S HANDYBOOK. 

A Practical Manual on Cleaning, Repairing, and Adjusting. With 
upwards of 100 Illustrations .50 

PATTERN MAKER'S HANDYBOOK. 

A Practical Manual on the Construction of Patterns for Founders. 
With upwards of 100 Illustrations. .50 

MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP HANDYBOOK. 

A Practical Manual on Mechanical Manipulation, embracing Informa- 
tion on various Handicraft Processes. With Useful Notes and Mis- 
cellaneous Memoranda. Comprising about 200 Subjects .50 

MODEL ENGINEER'S HANDYBOOK. 

A Practical Manual on the Construction of Model Steam Engines. 
With upwards of 100 Illustrations .50 

CLOCK JOBBER'S HANDYBOOK. 

A Practical Manual on Cleaning, Repairing, and Adjusting. With 
upwards of 100 Illustrations .50 

CABINET WORKER'S HANDYBOOK. 

A Practical Manual on the Tools, Materials, Appliances, and Processes 
employed in Cabinet Work. With upwards of 100 Illustrations. .50 

"Mr. Hasluck's thorough-going little Handybook is amongst the most 
practical guides we have seen for beginners in cabinet-work." — Saturday 
Review. 

WOODWORKER'S HANDYBOOK. 

Embracing Information on the Tools, Materials, Appliances, and 
Processes Employed in Woodworking. With 104 Illustrations. .50 



COMMERCE, COUNTING-HOUSE WORK, &c. 49 



COMMERCE, COUNTING-HOUSE WORK, 
TABLES, ETC. 



LESSONS IN COMMERCE. 

By Professor R. Gambaro, of the Royal High Commercial School at 
Genoa. Edited and Revised by James Gault, Professor of Commerce 
and Commercial Law in King's College, London. Fifth Edition. 
12mo, cloth $1.40 



THE FOREIGN COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENT. 

Being Aids to Commercial Correspondence in Five Languages — English, 
French, German, Italian, and Spanish. By Conrad E. Baker. Third 
Edition, Carefully Revised Throughout. 12mo, cloth $1.80 



FACTORY ACCOUNTS : their PRINCIPLES & PRACTICE. 

A Handbook for Accountants and Manufacturers, with Appendices on 
the Nomenclature of Machine Details; the Income Tax Acts; the 
Rating of Factories ; Fire and Boiler Insurance ; the Factory and Work- 
shop Acts, &c, including also a Glossary of Terms and a large number 
of Specimen Rulings. By Emile Garcke and J. M. Fells. Fifth 
Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Demy 8vo, cloth $3.00 



MODERN METROLOGY. 

A Manual of the Metrical Units and Systems of the present Century. 
With an Appendix containing a proposed English System. By 
Lowis d'A. Jackson, A.M.Inst.C.E., Author of "Aid to Survey Prac- 
tice," &c. 8vo, cloth $5.00 



A SERIES OF METRIC TABLES. 

In which the British Standard Measures and Weights are compared 
with those of the Metric System at present in Use on the Continent. 
By C. H. Dowling, C.E. 8vo, cloth $4.00 



IRON=PLATE WEIGHT TABLES. 

For Iron Shipbuilders, Engineers, and Iron Merchants Containing the 
Calculated Weights of upwards of 150,000 different sizes of Iron Plates 
from 1 foot by 6 in. by \ in. to 10 feet by 5 feet by 1 in. Worked out 
on the Basis of 40 lbs. to the square foot of Iron of 1 inch in thickness. 
By H, Burlinson and W. H. Simpson, 4to, half-bound $10.00 



50 CROSBY LOCKWOOD 6- SON'S CATALOGUE. 

AGRICULTURE, FARMING, 
GARDENING, ETC. 



THE COMPLETE GRAZIER AND FARMER'S AND 

CATTLE BREEDER'S ASSISTANT. 

A Compendium of Husbandry. Originally Written by William 
You att. Fourteenth Edition, entirely Re-written, considerably En- 
larged, and brought up to Present Requirements, by William Fream, 
LL.D., Assistant Commissioner, Royal Commission on Agriculture, 
Author of "The Elements of Agriculture," &c. Royal, 8vo, 1,100 pp., 
450 Illustrations, handsomely bound : $12.00 

STOCK: CATTLE, SHEEP, AND HORSES. 

Vol. III.— OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING. By R. Scott Burn. 
Woodcuts. 12mo, cloth $1.00 

SHEEP: 

The History, Structure, Economy, and Diseases of. By W. C. Spooner. 
Fifth Edition, with Engravings, including Specimens of New and 
Improved Breeds. 12mo, cloth $1.40 

MEAT PRODUCTION: 

A Manual for Producers, Distributors, and Consumers of Butchers' 
Meat. By John Ewart. 12mo, cloth $1.00 

MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER. 

A Practical Handbook on their Properties and the Processes of their 
Production. Including a Chapter on Cream and the Methods of its 
Separation from Milk. By John Oliver, late Principal of the Western 
Dairy Institute, Berkeley. With Coloured Plates and 200 Illustra- 
tions. 12mo, cloth $3.00 

BRITISH DAIRYING. 

A Handy Volume on the Work of the Dairy-Farm. For the Use of 
Technical Instruction Classes, Students in Agricultural Colleges and 
the Working Dairy-Farmer. By Prof. J. P. Sheldon. With Illus- 
trations. Second Edition, Revised. 12mo, cloth $1.00 

DAIRY, PIGS, AND POULTRY. 

Vol. IV. OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING. By R. Scott 
Burn. Woodcuts. 12mo, cloth .80 

THE ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURAL GEOLOGY. 

A Scientific Aid to Practical Farming. By Primrose McConnell. 
Author of "Note-book of Agricultural Facts and Figures." 8vo, cloth, 

$7.50 
SOILS, MANURES, AND CROPS. 

Vol. I.— OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING. By R. Scott Burn. 
Woodcuts. 12mo, cloth .80 

FERTILISERS AND FEEDING STUFFS. 

Their Properties and Uses. A Handbook for the Practical Farmer. 
By Bernard Dyer, D.Sc (Lond.) With the Text of the Fertilisers 
and Feeding Stuffs Act of 1893, -The Regulations and Forms of the 
Board of Agriculture, and Notes on the Act by A. J. David, B.A., 
LL.M. Fourth Edition, Revised. 12mo, cloth .40 

THE ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS AND THEIR 

PRACTICAL LESSONS FOR FARMERS. 

Part I. Stock. Part II. Crops. By C. J. R. Tipper. 12mo, cloth 

$1,40 



AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING, &c. 51 
SYSTEMATIC SMALL FARMING. 

Or, The Lessons of My Farm. Being an Introduction to Modern Farm 
Practice for Small Farmers. By R. Scott Burn, Author of "Outlines 
of Modern Farming," &c. 12mo, cloth $2.40 

THE FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 

A Text-Book of Agriculture. Adapted to the Syllabus of the Science 
and Art Department. For Elementary and Advanced Students. By 
Hugh Clements (Board of Trade). Second Edition, Revised, with 
Additions. 18mo, cloth $1.00 

OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING. 

By R. Scott Burn. Soils, Manures, and Crops — Farming and Farming 
Economy — Cattle, Sheep, and Horses — Management of Dairy, Pigs, 
and Poultry — Utilisation of Town-Sewage, Irrigation, &c. Sixth 
Edition. In One Vol., 1,250 pp., half-bound, profusely Illustrated. 

$4.80 

FARM ENGINEERING, The COMPLETE TEXT=BOOK of. 

Comprising Draining and Embanking; Irrigation and Water Supply; 
Farm Roads, Fences and Gates; Farm Buildings; Barn Implements 
and Machines; Field Implements and Machines; Agricultural Survey- 
ing, &c. By Professor John Scott. 1,150 pp., half -bound, with over 
600 Illustrations $4.80 

DRAINING AND EMBANKING. 

A Practical Treatise. By John Scott, late Professor of Agriculture 
and Rural Economy at the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. 
With 68 Illustrations. 12mo, cloth ,60 

"A valuable handbook to the engineer as well as to the surveyor." — Land. 

IRRIGATION AND WATER SUPPLY: 

A Practical Treatise on Water Meadows, Sewage Irrigation, Warping, 
&c; on the Construction of Wells, Ponds, and Reservoirs, &c. By 
Professor J. Scott. 12mo, cloth .60 

FARM ROADS, FENCES, AND GATES: 

A Practical Treatise 'on the Roads, Tramways, and Waterways of the 
Farm ; the Principles of Enclosures ; and on Fences, Gates, and Stiles. 
By Professor John Scott. 12mo, cloth 60 

BARN IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES: 

Treating of the Application of Power to the Operations of Agriculture 
and of the various Machines used in the Threshing-barn, in the Stock- 
yard, Dairy, &c. By Professor John Scott. With 123 Illustrations. 
12mo, cloth .80 

FIELD IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES: 

With Principles and Details of Construction and Points of Excellence, 
their Management, &c. By Professor John Scott. With 138 Illus- 
trations. 12mo, cloth .80 

AGRICULTURAL SURVEYING. 

A Treatise on Land Surveying, Levelling, and Setting-out ; with Direc- 
tions for Valuing and Reporting on Farms and Estates. By Professor 
J. Scott. 12mo, cloth .60 

OUTLINES OF FARM MANAGEMENT. 

Treating of the General Work of the Farm; Stock; Contract Work, 
Labour, &c. By R. Scott Burn. 12mo, cloth $1.00 

OUTLINES OF LANDED ESTATES MANAGEMENT. 

Treating of the Varieties of Lands, Methods of Farming, the Setting-out 
of Farms, &c; Roads, Fences, Gates, Irrigation, Drainage, &c. By 
R. S. Burn. 12mo, cloth $1.00 



5 2 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &• SCW'S CATALOGUE. 
FARMING AND FARMING ECONOMY. 

Historical and Practical. Vol. II.— OUTLINES OF MODERN 
FARMING. By R. Scott Burn. 12mo, cloth $1.20 

UTILIZATION OF SEWAGE, IRRIGATION, &c. 

Vol. V.— OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING. By R. Scott Burn. 
Woodcuts. 12mo, cloth $1.00 

NOTE=BOOK OF AGRICULTURAL FACTS & FIGURES 
FOR FARMERS AND FARM STUDENTS. 

By Primrose McConnell, B.Sc, Fellow of the Highland and Agri- 
cultural Society, Author of "Elements of Farming." Seventh Edition, 
Re-written, Revised, and greatly Enlarged. Fcap. 8vo, 480 pp., 
leather, gilt edges [Just Published. $3.00 

TABLES and MEMORANDA for FARMERS, GRAZIERS, 
AGRICULTURAL STUDENTS, SURVEYORS, LAND AGENTS, 
AUCTIONEERS, &c. 

With a New System of Farm Book-keeping. By Sidney Francis. 
Fifth Edition. 272 pp., waistcoat-pocket size, limp leather. . . .60 

THE HAY AND STRAW MEASURER: 

New Tables for the Use of Auctioneers, Valuers, Farmers, Hay and 
Straw Dealers, &c, forming a complete Calculator and Ready Reck- 
oner. By John Steele. 12mo, cloth # 8Q 

READY RECKONER FOR ADMEASUREMENT OF LAND. 

By A. Arman. Revised and extended by C. Norris, Surveyor. Fifth 
Edition. 12mo, cloth . .80 

THE HORTICULTURAL NOTE=BOOK. 

A Manual of Practical Rules, Data, and Tables, for the use of Students, 
Gardeners, Nurserymen, and others interested in Flower, Fruit, and 
Vegetable Culture, or in the Laying-out and Management of Gardens. 
By J. C. NewsHAM, F.R.H.S., Headmaster of the Hampshire County 
Council Horticultural School. With numerous Illustrations. Fcap. 
8vo, cloth [Just Published. $3.00 

MARKET AND KITCHEN GARDENING. 

By C. W. Shaw, late Editor of "Gardening Illustrated." Crown 8vo, 

$1.40 
A PLAIN GUIDE TO GOOD GARDENING; 

Or, How to Grow Vegetables, Fruits, and Flowers. By S. Wood. 
Fourth Edition, with considerable Additions, and numerous Illustra- 
tions. 12mo, cloth $1.40 

THE FORCING GARDEN; 

Or, How to Grow Early Fruits, Flowers and Vegetables. With Plans 
and Estimates for Building Glasshouses, Pits and Frames. With 
Illustrations. By Samuel Wood. 12mo, cloth $1.40 

KITCHEN GARDENING MADE EASY. 

Showing the best means of Cultivating every known Vegetable and 
Herb, &c, with directions for management all the year round. By 
Geo. M. F. Glenny. Illustrated. 12mo, cloth .60 

COTTAGE GARDENING; 

Or, Flowers, Fruits, and Vegetables for Small Gardens. By E. Hobday. 
12mo, cloth .60 

GARDEN RECEIPTS. 

Edited by Charles W. Quin. Fourth Edition. 12mo, cloth, .60 

MULTUM=IN=PARVO GARDENING; 

Or, How to Make One Acre of Land produce $3007 a year, by the 
Cultivation of Fruits and Vegetables; also, How to Grow Flowers in 
Three Glass Houses, so as to realise $853.60 per annum clear Profit. 
By Samuel Wood, Author of "Good Gardening," &c. Sixth Edition. 
12mo, paper .50 



AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING, &>c. 53 
THE LADIES' MULTUM=IN=PARVO FLOWER GARDEN. 

And Amateur's Complete Guide. By S.Wood. 12mo, cloth, $1.40 

FRUIT TREES, 

The Scientific and Profitable Culture of. From the French of M. Du 
Breuil. Fifth Edition, carefully Revised by George Glenny. With 
187 Woodcuts. 12mo, cloth $1.40 

ART OF GRAFTING AND BUDDING. 

By Charles Baltet. With Illustrations. 12mo, cloth $1.00 

TREE PRUNER: 

Being a Practical Manual on the Pruning of Fruit Trees, including also 
their Training and Renovation, also treating of the Pruning of Shrubs, 
Climbers, and Flowering Plants. With numerous Illustrations. By 
Samuel Wood, Author of "Good Gardening," &c. 12mo, cloth. .60 

TREE PLANTER AND PLANT PROPAGATOR: 

With numerous Illustrations of Grafting, Layering, Budding, Imple- 
ments, Houses, Pits, &c. By S. Wood. 12mo, cloth ,80 

" Sound in its teaching and very comprehensive in its aim. It is a good 
book." — Gardeners' Magazine. 

*** The above Two Vols, in One, handsomely half-bound, entitled "The 
Tree Planter, Propagator and Pruner." By Samuel Wood. 

$1.40 

THE CULTIVATION AND PREPARATION OF PARA 
RUBBER. 

By W. H. Johnson, F.L.S., F.R.H.S. 8vo, cloth Net $3.00 

For Summary of Contents, see page 43. 

BEES FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT. 

A Guide to the Manipulation of Bees, the Production of Honey, and the 
General Management of the Apiary. By G. Gordon Samson. With 
numerous Illustrations. 12mo, wrapper .40' 



MATHEMATICS, ARITHMETIC, ETC. 



TREATISE ON MATHEMATICS, 

As applied to the Constructive Arts. By Francis Campin, C.E., &c. 
Third Edition. 12mo, cloth $1.20 

SLIDE RULE, AND HOW TO USE IT. 

Containing full, easy, and simple Instructions to perform all Business 
Calculations with unexampled rapidity and accuracy. By Charles 
Hoare, C.E. With a Slide Rule, in tuck of cover. Eighth Edition. 
12mo $1.00 

MATHEMATICAL TABLES, 

For Trigonometrical, Astronomical, and Nautical Calculations; to 
which is prefixed a Treatise on Logarithms. By H. Law, C.E. To- 
gether with a Series of Tables for Navigation and Nautical Astronomy. 
By Professor J. R. Young. New Edition. 12mo, cloth $1.60 

LOGARITHMS. 

With Mathematical Tables for Trigonometrical, Astronomical, and 
Nautical Calculations. By Henry Law, C.E. Revised Edition. 
(Forming part of the preceding work.) 12mo, cloth $1.20' 



54 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
EUCLID, 

The Elements of ; with many Additional Propositions and Explanatory 
Notes; to which is prefixed an Introductory Essay on Logic. By 

Henby Law, C.E. 12mo, cloth $1.00 

*#* Sold also separately, viz.: — 

EUCLID. The First Three Books. By Henry Law, C.E. Crown 8vo, 
cloth .60 

EUCLID. Books 4, 5, 6, 11, 12. By Henry Law, C.E. Crown 8vo, 
cloth .60 

THEORY OF COMPOUND INTEREST AND ANNUITIES, 

With Tables of Logarithms for the more Difficult Computations of 
Interest, Discount, Annuities, &c, in all their Applications and Uses 
for Mercantile and State Purposes. By Fedor Thoman, of the Society 
Credit Mobilier, Paris. Fourth Edition. 12mo, cloth $1.60 

ARITHMETIC, 

Rudimentary, for the Use of Schools and Self -Instruction. By James 
Haddon, M.A. Revised by Abraham Arman. 12mo, cloth.. .60 

ARITHMETIC, 

A Rudimentary Treatise on: with full Explanations of its Theoretical 
Principles, and numerous Examples for Practice. For the use of 
Schools and for Self-Instruction. By J. R. Young, late Professor of 
Mathematics in Belfast College. 14th Ed. 12mo, cloth.... ,60 

KEY TO THE ABOVE. 

By J. R. Young. 12mo, cloth .60 

EQUATIONAL ARITHMETIC, 

Applied to Questions of Interest, Annuities, Life Assurance , and General 
Commerce: with various Tables by which all calculations may be 
greatly facilitated. By W. Hipsley. 12mo, cloth 60 

COMMERCIAL B00K=KEEPING. 

With Commercial Phrases and Forms in English, French, Italian, and 
German. By James Haddon, M.A., formerly Mathematical Master, 
King's College School. 12mo, cloth .60 

ALGEBRA, 

The Elements of. By James Haddon, M.A., formerly Mathematical 
Master of King's College School. With Appendix, containing Mis-- 
cellaneous Investigations, and a collection of Problems. 12mo, cloth, 

.80 

KEY AND COMPANION TO THE ABOVE. 

An extensive repository of Solved Examples and Problems in Illustra- 
tion of the various Expedients necessary in Algebraical Operations. 
By J. R. Young. 12mo, cloth 60 

DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY, 

An elementary Treatise on; with a Theory of Shadows and of Per- 
spective extracted from the French of G. Monge. To which is added 
a Description of the Principles and Practice of Isometrical Projection. 
By J. F. Heather, M.A. With 14 Plates. 12mo, cloth 80 

PRACTICAL PLANE GEOMETRY: 

Giving the Simplest Modes of Constructing Figures contained in one 
Plane and Geometrical Constructions of the Ground. By J. F. Heather, 
M.A. . 12mo, cloth gO 



MATHEMATICS, ARITHMETIC, &c. 55 

ANALTYICAL GEOMETRY AND CONIC SECTIONS. 

By J. Hann. Enlarged by Professor J. R. Young. Crown 8vo, cloth 

.80 
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY, 

The Elements of. By James Hann, M.A. Seventh Edition. 12mo 

.60 

SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY, 

The Elements of. By James Hann. Revised by Charles H. Dow- 
ling, C.E. 12mo, cloth ^q 

*** Or with "The Elements of Plane Trigonometry ," in One Vol. Crown 
8vo, cloth : .$1.00 

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS, 

Elements of the. By W. S. B. Woolhouse. 12mo, cloth. .. . t QQ 

INTEGRAL CALCULUS. 

By Homersham Cox, B.A. 12mo, cloth «0 

MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS, 

A Treatise on; Their Construction, Adjustment, Testing, and Use con- 
cisely explained. By J. F. Heather, M.A., of the Royal Military 
Academy, Woolwich. Fifteenth Edition, Revised with Additions, by 
A. T. Walmisley, M.Inst.C.E., Fellow of the Surveyors' Institution. 
Original Edition in One Vol., Illustrated. 12mo, cloth .go' 

*** In ordering be careful to say "Original Edition," to distinguish it from the 
Enlarged Edition in Three Vols (see below). 

DRAWING AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS. 

Including — I. Instruments employed in Geometrical and Mechanical 
Drawing, and in the Construction, Copying, and Measurement of Maps 
and Plans. II. Instruments used for the purposes of Accurate Measure- 
ment, and for Arithmetical Computations. By J. F. Heather M A 
12mo ' .60 

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS. 

Including (more especially) Telescopes, Microscopes, and Apparatus for 
producing copies of Maps and Plans by Photography. By J. F. 
Heather, M.A. Illustrated. 12mo, cloth .go 

SURVEYING AND ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS. 

Including — I. Instruments used for Determining the Geometrical 
Features of a portion of Ground. II. Instruments employed in 
Astronomical Observations. By J. F. Heather, M.A. Illustrated. 
12mo, cloth .00 

*** The above Three Volumes form an Enlargement of the Author's original 
work, "Mathematical Instruments," price ,80. 

MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS: 

Their Construction, Adjustment, Testing, and Use. Comprising Draw- 
ing, Measuring, Optical, Surveying, and Astronomical Instruments. 
By J. F. Heather, M.A. Enlarged Edition, for the most part re- 
written. Three parts as above. 12mo, cloth $1.80 

STATICS AND DYNAMICS, 

The Principles and Practice of ; embracing also a clear development of 
Hydrostatics, Hydrodynamics, and Central Forces. By T. Baker, 
C.E. Fourth Edition. 12mo, cloth gO 



56 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &> SON'S CATALOGUE. 
LAW AND MISCELLANEOUS. 



PATENTS for INVENTIONS, HOW to PROCURE THEM. 

Compiled for the Use of Inventors, Patentees and others. By G. G. M. 
Hardingham, Assoc. Mem. Inst. C.E., &c. Demy 8vo, cloth, .60 

DICTIONARY OF PAINTERS, 

And Handbook for Picture Amateurs; being a Guide for "Visitors to 
Public and Private Picture Galleries, and for Art Students including 
Glossary of Terms, &c. By Philippe Daryl, B. A. 12mo, cloth. $1.00 

DICTIONARY OF TERMS USED IN ARCHITECTURE. 

Building Engineering, Mining, Metallurgy, Archaeology, the Fine Arts, 
&c. By John Weale. Sixth Edition. Edited by Robt. Hunt, 
F.R.S. Numerous Illustrations, 12mo, cloth $2.00 

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, 

For the Use of Beginners. By C. Tomlinson, F.R.S. 12mo, cloth, 

.60 
HANDBOOK OF FIELD FORTIFICATION. 

By Major W. W. Knollys, F.R.G.S. 12mo, cloth $1.20 

COMPENDIOUS CALCULATOR 

(Intuitive Calculations); or Easy and Concise Methods of performing the 
various Arithmetical Operations required in Commercial and Business 
Transactions; together with Useful Tables, &c. By Daniel O'Gorman. 
Twenty-eighth Edition, revised.by C. Norris. 12mo, cloth. . -$1.00 

MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND MONEYS OF ALL 
NATIONS. 

And an Analysis of the Christian, Hebrew, and Mahometan Calendars. 
By W. S. B. Woolhouse, F.R.A.S. 7th Ed. 12mo, cloth. .$1.00 

SPANISH GRAMMAR. 

In a Simple and Practical Form. With Exercises. By Alfred El wes. 
12mo, cloth .60 

SPANISH=ENGLISH AND ENGLISH-SPANISH DIC= 

TIONARV. 

Including a large number of Technical Terms used in Mining, Engineer- 
ing, &c, with the proper Accents and the Gender of every Noun. By 
Alfred Elwes. 12mo, cloth $1.60 

PORTUGUESE GRAMMAR. 

In a Simple and Practical Form. With Exercises. By Alfred 
Elwes. 12mo, cloth .60 

PORTUGUESE=ENGLISH AND ENGLISH=PORTU= 
GUESE DICTIONARY. 

Including a large number of Technical Terms used in Mining, Engineer- 
ing, &c, with the proper Accents and the Gender of every Noun. By 
Alfred Elwes. Fourth Edition, revised. 12mo, cloth $2.00 

ANIMAL PHYSICS. 

Handbook of. By Dionysius Lardner, D.C.L. With 520 Illustra- 
tions. In One Vol. (732 pages). 12mo, cloth $3.00 

MUSIC, 

A Rudimentary and Practical Treatise on. By C. C. Spencer. 12mo, 

$1.00 
PIANOFORTE, 

The Art of Playing the. With Exercises and Lessons. By C. C. 
Spencer. 12mo, cloth .60 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 



Acetylene Gas, Gibbs, 42 

Acoustics, Smith, 35 

Aerial Navigation, Walker, 11 

Tramways, Tayler, 2 

Agricultural Geology, McCon- 
nell, 50 

Note Book, McConnett, 52 

Surveying, Scott, 5 1 

Air Machinery, Weisbach, 9, 22 
Algebra, H addon, 54 
Alkali Trade, Lomas, 42 
Alphabets, Delamotte, 39 
Alternating Current Machines, 

Sheldon and Mason, 29 
Animal Physics, Lardner, 56 

Physiology, Lardner, 41 

Arches, Piers, &c, Bland, 32 
Architect's Guide, Rogers, 34 
Architectural Modelling, Rich- 
ardson, 34 
Architecture, Ancient, 34 

Civil, Chambers, 34 

Design, Garbett, 34 

Grecian, Aberdeen, 35 

Mechanics of, Tarn, 34 

Modern, 34 

of Vitruvius, Gwilt, 35 

Orders, Leeds, 34 

Orders and Styles, 34 

Styles, Bury, 34 

Arithmetic, Haddon, 54 

Young, 54 

Equational, Hipsley, 54 



Armature, Windings, Arnold, 29 
Artists' Pigments, Standage, 43 
Asbestos, Jones, 27 
Astronomical Glossary, Gore, 40 
Astronomy, Lardner, 41 
— — ■ Main and Lynn, 40 

Barn Implements, Scott, 51 

Beams, Flexure of, Guy, 18 

Bees, Samson, 53 

Blasting, Burgoyne, 19 

Blowpipe, i?<m, 42 

Boiler and Factory Chimneys, 

Wilson, 4 
Boilers, Armstrong, 5 

■ Bauer, 20 

— ■ — ■ Courtney, 3 

Foley, 3 

Homer, 4 

Hutton, 3 

Wz7.y0M, 4 

Book-keeping, Haddon, 54 
Boot and Shoe Making, Lewo, 44 
Brass Founding, Graham, 45 
Bread and Biscuit Baker, Wells, 
46 
Breakfast Dishes, Allen, 47 
Brewing and Malting, Wright, 

4i 
Brick and Tile Book, 33 

Making, Dobson, 32 

Brick-cutting, Hammond, 32 
Bricklaying, Hammond, 32 

57 



58 



INDEX TO CATALOGUE. 



Brickwork, Walker, 32 
Bridges, Iron, H umber, 16 

Iron, Pendred, 16 

Oblique, Buck, 16 

Tubular, Dempsey, 1 7 

Bridges and Viaducts, Campin, 

British Mining, Hunt, 25 
Builders' Measuring, Beaton, 33 

Quantities, Beaton, 33 

Building, a Book on, Beckett, 31 

Art of, Dobson, 31 

Construction, Allen, 31 

Cottage, Allen, 31 

Dwelling Houses, Brooks, 

32 

■ Estates, Maitland, 31 

Farm, Scott, 32 

Science of, Tarn, 31 

Cabinet-Making, Bitmead, 37 

Working, Hasluck, 48 

Calculator, O'Gorman, 56 
Calculus, Differential, Woolhouse, 

55 

Integral, Cox, 55 

Carpenter's Guide, Nicholson, 

37 
Carpentry and Joinery, Tredgold 
and Tarn, 37 

Tredgold, 37 

Cattle, Sheep, &c, Burn, 50 
Cements, &c, Standage, 47 
Chain Cables, Traill, 20 
Chemistry of Mining, Byrom, 26 
Chimneys, Wilson, 4 
Circular Work, Collings, 37 
Civil Engineering, Law, 18 
Clock Jobbing, Hasluck, 48 
Clocks, Watches, and Bells, 

Beckett, 45 
Coach-Building, Burgess, 47 
Coal & Iron Industries, Meade, 

26 

Mining, Cockin, 26 

Smyth, 26 

Colliery Manager, Pamely, 25 
Working, Bulman and Red- 
may ne, 26 



Colouring, i<ze/d &* Davidson, 

39 
Colours & Dye Wares, Slater, 

42 
Commerce, Gambaro, 49 
Commercial Correspondence, 

Baker, 49 
Compound Interest, Thoman, 

54 
Concrete, Sutcliffe, 33 
Confectioner, Flour, Wells, 47 
Confectionery, PFe/fc, 46 
Constructional Ironwork, 

Campin, 17 
Copper, Metallurgy of, Eissler, 

24 
Cottage Building, Allen, 31 

Gardening, Hobday, 52 

Cotton Manufacture, Lister, 

44 
Cranes, Glynn, 11 
Creation, Records of, Le Vaux, 

40 
Curves, Tables of, Beazeley, 15 
Cyanide Process, Eissler, 23 

Dairying, British, Sheldon, 50 
Dairy, Pigs, and Poultry, Burn, 

5° 
Dangerous Goods, Phillips, 42 
Decoration, Facey, 38 
House-Painting, Graining, 

&c, 38 
Imitation of Woods and 

Marbles, 38 

■ Marble, Blagrove, 39 

Decorator's Assistant, 39 

Deep Level Mines of the Rand, 

Denny, 22 
Diamond Drilling, Denny, 23 
Dictionary of Architecture, 

Weale and Hunt, 56 

Painters, Daryl, 56 

Direct Current Machines, Sheldon 

and Mason, 29 
Drainage of Lands, Clark, 14 

(Mine), Michell, 25 

Draining & Embanking, Scott, 
Si 



INDEX TO CATALOGUE. 



59 



Drawing Instruments, Heather, 
55 

Rules on, Pyne, 34 

Dwelling Houses, Brooks, 32 
Dynamic Electricity, Atkinson, 

30 
Dynamo Construction, Urquhart, 

29 

How to Make, Crofts, 29 

Motor and Switchboard 

Circuits, Bowker, 29 

Earthwork, Graham, 16 
Tables, Broadbent &° Cam- 
pin, 16 

Tables, Buck, 16 

Earthy Minerals, Davies, 24 
Electrical Calculations, Atkinson, 

3° 

Conductors, Perrine, 29 

Engineering, Alexander, 28 

■ Sewell, 28 

Pocket Book, Kempe, 30 

Transmission, A bbott, 28 

Electricity Applied to Mining, 
Lupton, Parr, &° Per kin, 25, 28 
— — Lardner and Foster, 41 

Text-Book, Noad, 30 

Electric Light Fitting, Urquhart, 

3° 

Light, Knight, 30 

Light, Urquhart, 30 

Lighting, Swinton, 30 

Ship-Lighting, Urquhart, 30 

Telegraph, Lardner, 41 

Electro-Metallurgy, Watt, 45 

Plating, Urquhart, 45 

Plating, Watt and Philip,. 

45 

Typing, Urquhart, 45 

Embroiderer's Design, Delamotte, 

39 

Engine-Driving Life, Reynolds, 

6 

Engineering Chemistry, Phillips, 

42 

Drawing, Maxton, 8 

Estimates, 9 

Engineering Tools, Horner, 2 



Engineer's Assistant, Templeton, 

8 

Companion, Edwards, 8 

Field Book, Haskoll, 15 

Handbook, Hutton, 5 

Pocket-Book, Clark, 7 

Reference Book, Foley, 3 

Turning, Horner, 2 

Year Book, Kempe, 7 

Engineman's Companion, Reyn- 
olds, 7 
Euclid, Law, 54 
Excavating, Prelini, 16 
Explosives, Eissler, 42 
Nitro, Sanford, 42 



Factory Accounts, Garcke &* 

.Fe//s, 49 
Farm Buildings, Scott, 32 

Engineering, Scott, 5 1 

Management, Burn, 5 1 

Roads, &c, Scott, 51 

Farmer's Tables, Francis, 52 
Farming Economy, Bum, 52 

Outlines, Burn, 51 

Small, Burn, 51 

Fertilisers; &c, Z>yer, 50 
Field Fortification, Knotty s, 56 

Implements, Scott, 5 1 

Fields of Gt. Britain, Clements, 

5 1 
Fires & Fire Engines, Young, 1 1 
Flour, Kick and Powles, 46 
Forestry, Curtis, 36 , 
Foundations, &c, Dobson, 19 
French Polishing, Bitmead, 47 
Fruit Trees, Du Breuil, 53 
Fuel, Williams and Clark, 10 
Fuels, Phillips, 10 

Garden, Forcing, Wood, 52 

Receipts, Quin, 52 

Gardening, Good, PF00J, 52 

Ladies', Wood, 53 

Multum-in-Parvo, Wood, 

52 
Gas and Oil Engines, Bale, 7 
Engines, Goodeve, 7 



6o 



INDEX TO CATALOGUE. 



Gas Engineer's Pocket Book, 

O'Connor, 42 

Fitting, Black, 47 

Producer Plants, Mathot, 

6 

Works, Hughes, 18 

Geology, Historical, Tate, 27 

Physical, Tate, 27 

Tate, 27 

Geometry, Tarn, 17 

Analytical, Hann, 55 

Descriptive, Heather, 54 

Technical, Sprague, 17 

of Compasses, Byrne, 17 

Plane, Heather, 54 

Girders (Iron), Buck, 17 

Glass Staining, Gessert and 

Fromberg, 40 
Gold Assaying, Phillips, 23 

and Silver, Merritt, 23 

Metallurgy of, Eissler, 23 

Prospecting, Rankin, 23 

Goldsmith's Handbook, Gee, 45 

and Silversmith, Gee, 46 

Grafting and Budding, Ballet, 

53 
Granites, Harris, 27 
Grazier, Complete, Fream, 50 

Hall Marking Jewellery, Gee, 

45 
Handrailing, Collings, 37 

Goldthorp, 37 

Hay & Straw Measurer, Steele, 

5 2 
Health Officer, WiUoughby, 35 
Heat (Expansion by), Keily, 18 
Heat, Lardner and Loewy, 41 
Heating by Hot Water, Jones, 

33 
Hints to Architects, Wight-wick 

andGuillaume, 34 
Hoisting Machinery, Horner, 2 
Hoisting & Conveying Ma- 
chinery, Zimmer, 2 
Horology, Saunter, 44 
Horticulture, Newsham, 52 
House Decoration, Facey, 38 
Painting, Davidson, 39 



Hydraulic Manual, Jackson, 13 

Engineering, Marks, 13 

Tables, Neville, 13 

Hydrostatics, Lardner, 41 

Illumination, Delamotte, 39 
India Rubber, Johnson, 43, 53 
Inflammable Gas, Clowes, 26 
Iron and Steel, Hoare, 8 
Iron, Metallurgy of, Bauerman, 

25 

Ores, Kendall, 25 

Plate Weight Tables, 

Burlinson and Simpson, 49 
Irrigation, Mawson, n 

and Water Supply, ScoW, 

5 1 

Jeweller's Assistant, Gee, 45 
Joints (Builders'), Christy, 37 

Key to Haddon's Algebra, 54 

to Young's Arithmetic, 54 

Kitchen Gardening, Glenny, 52 

Land, Ready Reckoner, Arman, 

5 2 

(Reclamation of), Beaze- 

ley, 12 
Landed Estates, Burn, 51 
Lathe Work, Hasluck, 9 
Laundry, Management, 47 
Lead (Argentiferous), Eissler, 

24 
Leather Manufacture, Watt, 44 
Letter Painting, Badenoch, 39 
Levelling, Simms, 15 
Light, Tarn, 35 
Light Railways, Calthrop, n 
Lightning Conductors, Hedges, 

32 
Limes, Cements, Burnett, 33 
Locks, Tomlinson, 47 
Locomotive Engine, Stretton, 6 

Engine, W eatherburn, 6 

■ Engine Driving, Reynolds, 6 

Engineer, Reynolds, 6 

Engines, Dempsey, 6 



INDEX TO CATALOGUE. 



61 



Logarithms, Law, 53 

Machine Shop Tools, 2 
Machinery, Details, Campin, 9 
Marble Decoration, Blagrove, 

39 

Marine Engineering, Brewer, 

20 

Engineer, Wannan, 20 

Engineer's Pocket Book, 

Wannan, 20 
Marine Engines & Boilers, 
Bauer, Donkin and Robertson, 

Engines, Murray, 20 

Market Gardening, Shaw, 52 
Masonry, Purchase, 32 
and Stone-Cutting, Dob- 
son, 32 

■ ■ Dams, Courtney, 13 

Masting and Rigging, Kipping, 
21 
Materials, Campin, 18 

(Strength of), Barlow, 18 

Handling of, Zimmer, 1 

Mathematical Insts., Heather, 

55 

Heather &* Walmisley, 55 

Tables, Law and Young, 

22, 53 
Mathematics, Campin, 53 
Measures, Weights, &c, Wool- 
house, 56 
Measuring Builders' Work, 
Dob son and Tarn, 33 

Timber, &c, Horton, 33 

Meat Production, Ewart, 50 
Mechanical Dentistry, Hunter, 

45 

Engineering, Campin, 9 

Handling of Material, 

Zimmer, 1 

Terms, Lockwood, 8 

Mechanics, Hughes, 9 

Lardner and Loewy, 40 

Tomlinson, 10 

of Air Machinery, Weis- 

bach, 9, 22 
(Tables for), Smith, 8 



Mechanics' Companion, Tem- 
pleton and Hutton, 8 

Workshop, Hasluck, 48 

Mechanism, Baker, 10 
Mensuration & Gauging, Mant, 



and Measuring, 



41 
Baker, 

17 
Metal Turning, Hasluck, 48 
Metalliferous Minerals, Davies, 

24 
Mining Machinery, Davies, 

22 
Metric Tables, Dowling, 49 
Metrology, Jackson, 49 
Microscope, Van Heurck, 40 
Milk, Cheese, &c, Oliver, 50 
Milling Machines, Horner, 2 
Mine Drainage, Michell, 25 
Mines of the Rand, Denny, 22 
Mineral Surveyor, Lintern, 27 
Mineralogy, Ramsay, 27 
Miners' Handbook, Milne, 25 

Pocket Book, Power, 24 

Mining, British, Hunt, 24 
Calculations, O'Donahue, 

26 

Chemistry of, Byrom, 26 

Students, Notes for, Meri- 

vale, 26 

Tools, Morgans, 27 

and Quarrying, Collins, 

27 
Model Engineer, Hasluck, 48 
Mollusca, Wooiiwar^, 40 
Motor Cars, Tayler, n, 47 

Vehicles, Tayler, 1 1 

Museum of Science and Art, 

Lardner, 41 
Music, Spencer, 56 

Natural Philosophy, Tomlinson, 

56 
for Schools, Lardner, 

41 

Naval Architect's Pocket Book, 
Mackrow, 20 

Architecture, Peake, 21 

Navigation, Young, 22 



62 



INDEX TO CATALOGUE. 



Navigation, Greenwood and 

Rosser, 21 
Practical, 21 

Oil Fields of Russia, Thompson, 
22, 41 
Oils, Analysis of, Wright, 41 
Optical Instruments, Heather, 

55 
Optics, Lardner & Harding, 41 
Organ Building, Dickson, 47 

Packing Case Tables, Richard- 
son, 38 
Painting, Qullick & Timbs, 40 
Paper, Parkinson, 43 

Making, Clapperton, 43 

Wa«, 43 

Pastrycook's Guide, Wells, 46 
Patents, Hardingham, 56 
Pattern Making, Hasluck, 48 

Horner, 8 

Perspective, Ferguson, 33 

Pyne, 34 

Pianoforte, Spencer, 56 
Pioneer Engineering, Dobson, 

15 
Plastering, Kemp, 33 
Plating & Boilermaking, .Hor- 
ner, 4 
Plumbing, Buchan, 33 
Pneumatics, Tomlinson, 19 
Pocketbook, Agriculturist's, 
Francis, 55 

McConnell, 52 

■ Builder's, Beaton, 33 

Electrical, Kempe, 30 

Engineer's, Clark, 7 

Edwards, 8 

■ Fletcher, 8 

■ Hasluck, 9 

■ Kempe, 7 

■ Smith, 8 

Templeton, 8 

Engineman's, Reynolds, 6 

Gas Engineer's, O'Connor, 

43 
— Health Officer's, Willoughby, 

35 



Pocketbook, Marine Engineer's, 

Mackrow, 20 

Wannan, 20 

of Mensuration and 

Measuring, Mant, 41 
— — Miner's, Milne, 25 

Power, 24 

— - — Mining Prospecto r's, 

Anderson, 24 

Merritt, 24 

Rankin, 23 

of Refrigeration, Taylei\ 

10 
Portable Engine, Wansbrough, 

5 
Portland Cement, Faija and 

Butler, 33 
Portuguese Dictionary, Elwes, 
56 

Grammar, Elwes, 56 

Producer-Gas Plants, Mathot, 6 
Prospector's Handbook, Ander- 
son, 24 
Pumps and Pumping, Sa/e, 10 

Quantities (Builders'), Beaton, 33 

Railway Brakes, Reynolds, 6 

Working, Stretton, 19 

Reclamation of Land, Beazeley, 

12 

Refrigerating Machinery, 7Vy- 

/er, 11 
Refrigeration, Tayler, 10 

(Pocket Book), Tayler, 11 

River Bars, Mann, 14 
Roads and Streets, Law, 16 
Roof Carpentry, Collings, 37 
Roofs, Construction of, Tarn, 
18 
Rothamsted Experiments, 

Tipper, 50 

Sailmaking, Kipping, 21 

Sadler, 21 

Sanitary Work, 5/a^, 36 
Savouries and Sweets, Allen, 
47 



INDEX TO CATALOGUE. 



63 



Saw Mills, -Bale, 36 
Screw Threads, Hasluck, 9 
Sea Terms, Pirrie, 21 
Sewage, Irrigation, Burn, 52 
— — Purification, Barwise, 36 
Sewing Machinery, Urquhart, 

47 
Sheep (The), Spooner, 50 
Sheet-Metal Work, Crane, 46 

1 Work, Warn & Horner, 

46 
Shoring, Blagrove, 32 
Ship Building, Sommerfeldt, 21 

German, Felskowski, 21 

Ships and Boats, Bland, 21 
Silver, Metallurgy of, Eissler, 24 
Silversmith's Handbook, Gee, 45 
Slate Quarrying, Davies, 27 
Slide Rule, Hoare, 53 
Smithy and Forge, Crane, 9 
Soap Making, W^a«, 44 
Soils, Burn, 50 
Spanish Dictionary, Elwes, 56 

Grammar, Elwes, 56 

Specifications, Bartholomew, 31 

in Detail, ikfacey, 31 

Star Groups, Gore, 40 
Statics, Graham, 17 

and Dynamics, Baker, 55 

Stationary Engine Driving, 
Reynolds, 6 

Steam Engines, Hurst, 6 

Steam and Machinery Manage- 
ment, Bale, 7 

and Steam Engine, Clark, 

10 
Steam Boiler Construction, Hut- 
ton, 3 

Boilers, Armstrong, 5 

Wilson, 4 

Engine, Baker, 6 

Goodeve, 5 

— Haeder and Powles, 5 

Lardner, 6 

Safe Use of, 7 

Stone Working Machinery, 

Bale, 11 
Strains in Girders, Humber, 17 
on Ironwork, Shields, 1 7 



Submarine Telegraphs, Bright, 

30 
Superficial Measuremnt, 

Hawkings, 38 
Survey Practice, Jackson, 14 
Surveying, Baker and Dixon, 14 

Frome and Warren, 15 

Instruments, Heather, 55 

Land & Marine, Haskoll, 14 

Subterraneous, Fenwick, 27 

Usill, 14 

Whitelaw, 14 

with Tacheometer, Ken- 
nedy, 14 

Tea Machinery, Tayler, 46 
Technical Guide, Beaton, 33 

Terms, Fletcher, 8 

Timber Importer, Grandy, 37 

Merchant, Dowsing, 37 

Richardson, 38 

Toothed Gearing, Horner, 9 
Tramways, Clark, 16 
Transmission by Electricity, 

Atkinson, 29 
Traverse Tables, Lintern, 27 
Tree Planter, Wood, 53 

Pruner, Wood, 53 

Trigonometry, Plane, Hann, 55 

■ ■ Spherical, Hann, 55 

Trusses, Griffiths, 18 
Tunnelling, Prelini and Hill, 15 

Simms and Clark, 15 

Tunnel Shafts, Buck, 16 
Turning, Engineers', Horner, 2 

Lathe, Hasluck, 9 

Metal, Hasluck, 48 

Wood, Hasluck, 48 

Ventilation of Buildings, Buchan, 

36 
Villa Architecture, W«:&e.y, 34 
Visible Universe, Gore, 40 
Vitruvius' Architecture, Gwilt, 

35 
Watch Jobbing, Hasluck, 48 

Maker, Saunier, 44 

Repairing, Garrard, 44 

Watches, History of, Kendal, 45 



INDEX TO CATALOGUE. 



Water Purification, Rideal, 35 

Engineering, Slagg, 13, 35 

Power of, Glynn, 13 

Supply, Humber, 12, 35 

Greenwell and Curry, 

12,35 
Supply of Towns, Burton, 

I2 > 35 
Waterworks, Hughes, 13 
Well-Sinking, Swindell, 13 



Wireless Telegraphy, Sewall, 29 
Wood Carving for Amateurs, 40 

Engraving, Brown, 47 

Turning, Hasluck, 48 

Woods and Marbles, Imitation 

of, Van der Burg, 38 
Woodworking, Hasluck, 48 

Machinery, Bale, 36 

Workshop Practice, Winton, 9 
Works' Manager, Hutton, 3 



1908 



XttSBsfi 



